A bankers' origin of the Soviet Union: Morgan and Rockefeller funded Kerensky and White Russians; Rothschild, Schiff and Warburg funded Trotsky and Lenin; Harriman and big business of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce build up Stalin's Russia

"World Peace! ... I wholeheartedly admire [Mr. Josef Stalin's] unselfish, untiring efforts to raise the standards of living of the 160,000,000 people within the confines of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union [where] there exists natural resources far greater in value than the known natural resources of the balance of Europe. ...

"I revisited Russia... I could find nowhere anyone who knew of or said he believed in any organized resistance against the Soviet Government throughout the Russian land. ... The penal system of the Soviets has abolished all punitive elements. The whole method of detention is educational and correctional."

Nov. 24, 1933, words of two American speakers, including from Col. Raymond Robins - an old conspirator at the time of the 1917 Russian Revolution together with Morgan representative William Boyce Thompson - to the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, about 2.5 years before Stalin's "Great Purge" began. (PDF) It wasn't the first purge by Stalin either. ICC committee member Averell Harriman sat on the board, as well as the dais that night, alongside the heads of J. P. Morgan & Co. and countless corporations looking to invest into the Soviet Union.

"We are applying [violence] against our class enemies, but know that not later than a month hence this terror will take a more terrible form on the model of the terror of the great revolutionaries of France. Not a fortress, but the guillotine will [await] for our enemies!"

Leon Trotsky, just after the November 7, 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, and before the "Red Terror" began. 1 Trotsky was supported by the Schiff-Warburg banking clique in New York City, before being shipped to Russia in preparation for the Bolshevik Revolution.

"To overcome our enemies we must have our own socialist militarism. We must carry along with us 90 million out of the 100 million of Soviet Russia's population. As for the rest, we have nothing to say to them. They must be annihilated."

Lenin and Trotsky ally Grigory Zinoviev, at the time the chairman of the Petrograd Soviet (City Council) as a follow-up to Lenin and soon the chairman of the Communist International (1919-1926). 2

"I am well on the side of safety when I say that the anti-Bolsheviks killed one hundred people in Eastern Siberia, to every one killed by the Bolsheviks."

Gen. William Graves, commander of North-American forces in Siberia in 1918-1919 3, ashamed of seeing the British, French, Wall Street, and Japan-supported White Armies committing their atrocities.

"[White Army general] Semenoff was creating Bolshevism while ostensibly opposing it ... through wholesale robbery, rape, murder and torture of the peasant population of Siberia [similar to generals] Kalmikoff, Dutoff, and Annenkoff..."

April 17, 1922, W. W. Husband, commissioner general of immigration, to the U.S. Senate. 4

^^

Intro

Careful with those John Birchers

A good portion of ISGP readers might be familiar with the concept of "conservative CIA", conservative conspiracy disinformation, and Cold War groups as the John Birch Society and pro-Nazi Liberty Lobby propagandizing these types of views and theories, later respectively followed by Alex Jones and Jeff Rense. Among the most prominent of their propaganda views is that "liberalism", "globalism" and "socialism" equate to "communism". Therefore it shouldn't come as a surprise that in conservative Christian circles the communist Soviet Union often has been seen as the endgoal of the "globalist movement"; something that was to be exported to the United States.

We see that type of propaganda reflected, for example, in the following words of John Birch Society-allied author Antony Sutton:

"William Boyce Thompson wanted this mission and he put the money up. He financed it. And if you look up a list of the people on the mission, and they were mostly bankers and lawyers from Wall Street. ... The function, or the purpose, of this mission, was to be in place to assist the Bolshevik Revolution. ... Briefly, the Red Cross Mission was a cover vehicle to enable Wall Street to be there in place to guide and manipulate the ongoing Bolshevik Revolution. ... Oh yes, they were quite willing to send U.S. army instructors. [Well,] I do know the rifles went forward. ...

"I suspect [they supported communism] because they plan to control world society in which you and I won't find the freedoms to believe and think as we believe." 5

This is wrong information, mostly. William Boyce Thompson was doling out his own and Morgan money to prop up the government of Alexander Kerensky, which had replaced the Czars in February 1917, but was still looking to keep Russia into World War I on the side of Great Britain, France and the United States - despite overwhelming opposition by the population. Instead, the Bolsheviks wanted to withdraw from World War I. When the Bolsheviks came to power on November 7, 1917, for some time overtures were made to see if the Bolsheviks at the very least could prevent themselves from being overrun by Germany in the near future. However, as U.S. soldiers started pouring into Europe by the millions in mid 1918 and it became obvious that Germany was going to lose the war, the relationship between the Bolsheviks and Great Britain, France and the United States quickly turned fully hostile.

While he does describe the situation more nuanced in some of his books, it is quite clear that in his latter-day speeches he has been glancing over these details to make the case that "the globalists are communist". With a history of being a paid research fellow at the mixed "globalist-conservative" and "conservative CIA" Hoover Institution from 1968 to 1973, this should come as no surprise. The fact that interviews of Sutton have been carried out by the likes of Dr. Stanley Monteith 6 of the Council for National Policy (CNP), or a bizarre pro-Czarist, and likely similarly ultraright group as 'The Romanov Royal Martyrs'. 7 Actually, within 4 minutes of listening to the Stanley Monteith interview, the monkey pops out of the sleeve with Sutton:

"The build up of the three types of socialism [I discuss]: Bolshevik socialism in Russia, what we might call "welfare socialism" in the United States, and Hitlerian or national socialism. Each book examines the financing and the contributions by Wall Street and international bankers to that specific form of socialism." 8

That's the conservative movement 101: discrediting "welfare socialism" as "communism". Sutton has done important work on the Federal Reserve, the Trilateral Commission, the funding of communist and Nazi regimes, and Skull & Bones - so much so that today's "conspiracy disinformation" is of a much lower quality, without any truths in them - but you always have to take these John Birch Society-type productions with a pinch of salt.

In any case, many people in the conspiracy community, this author included, have heard of Antony Sutton's works. This author ran into it countless times. However, at the same time, I myself always did my own research. I would continually find people in the Pilgrims Society, the Council on Foreign Relations, the International Chamber of Commerce, the 1001 Club and elsewhere who had a history with Nazi or Mussolini collaboration. These people were often already discussed by the likes of Antony Sutton, so in that manner our works would organically flow together. The conservative propaganda and biases in the work though have always made them impossible to fully rely on though. Hence, this article ended up being created.

Finally going through Antony Sutton's 1974 book 'Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution', a lot of what has been discussed in this article, also is discussed in that book. Probably the most shocking element that Sutton missed in that book is that Leon Trotsky was picked up at the pier in New York City, just before the Bolshevik revolution, by someone who essentially was employed by Warburg in-law Jacob Schiff. He also never mentioned the less-confirmed Rothschild connection of Trotsky. All of it only is to indicate that even with me expanding a little bit on Sutton's work half a century later, and putting things in the proper perspective, there's still so much left to be uncovered. Not just with regard to the forces behind the Bolshevik revolution, but also with regard to the funding of fascism. These details likely will be fully lost in history though.

Summary: which bankers funded what?

I'd say I did a pretty good job of summarizing the contents of this article in the article title. However, a few more details might be desired in a summary of this article:

1. In 1916, during World War I, the Rockefellers, Morgans and apparently only non-Jewish banking firms floated at least $100,000,000 ($3 billion in 2025 dollars) in loans to Czarist Russia in order for the country to buy war supplies in the United States. Russia was an ally of the U.K., France, Italy and United States in World War I, against Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.


2. Germany, Austria and U.S.-based Jewish bankers as Warburg, Schiff, Salomonsohn and Rothschild supported Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin in their Bolshevik Revolution. Certainly with Lenin, they received help from the German army in transportation to Russia. The Germans wanted the Bolsheviks to take over Russia, because they desired to take Russia out of World War I against Germany, while it appears the Jewish bankers in particular wanted to get rid of the Czarist regime once and for all due to its support for pogroms and the creation and dissemination of the 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion' (1903).


3. The Rockefellers and Morgans, through men as William Boyce Thompson and banks as Equitable Trust, National City Bank and J.P. Morgan & Co., predominantly were interested in keeping the moderately socialist and pro-war Alexander Kerensky in power, who headed the government after the Czars lost power in February 1917.


4. These same Rockefeller and Morgan interests, alongside France and Lord Alfred Milner in Great Britain, ended up financing the right-wing White Russians under Admiral Alexander Kolchak during the Russian Civil War, which broke out after the November 1917 Bolshevik Revolution.


5. From November 1917 until roughly May 1918 there was some interest by the United States, Great Britain and France to try to militarily cooperate with the Bolshevik regime to either keep it into World War I on the side of these countries, or to at least make it strong enough to resist a further German conquest. This alliance failed miserably though by June, as millions of American soldiers were pouring into Europe, the Germans were beginning to lose the war, and the British and French more openly began to work with White Armies against the Bolsheviks.


6. During the subsequent Stalin era, American and other western companies were deeply involved in bringing Stalin's first five-year plan for industrialization into fruition, which ran from 1928 to 1932. Various corporations of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce were involved in this.

^^

International Chamber

Forgotten branch of the Hitler- and Mussolini-tied International Chamber

In January 2023, ISGP published its article on the International Chamber of Commerce, founded in 1920 by the two key "money trust" players: the henchmen of the Morgan and Rockefeller families. As a result it should immediately be clear that the activities of the ICC always were heavily intertwined with the Pilgrims Society and the Council on Foreign Relations.

Among the ICC's more notable international business congresses were the 1922 one hosted by Benito Mussolini - less than five months after his fascist coup - and the 1937 one hosted by Adolf Hitler - 9 months before the annexation of Austria - with many of its committee members having played key roles in bringing these fascists to power.

In the same period the International Chamber of Commerce built a working relationship with the top two zaibatsu in Japan, Mitsui and Mitsubishi, which not-so-secretly controlled Japanese politics from the 1880s to the 1930s.

At home in the United States, the vast majority of ICC committee members opposed anything from labor unions and FDR's New Deal to legislation to curb stock market speculation.

The conclusion for that article was simple: big business likes to make money. Hence, there's been a historical trend of big business supporting any candidate that suppresses labor unions and promises maximum opportunities for plunder in the form of state monopolies to wars of conquest - which Hitler and Mussolini both represented.

The trouble of big business operating in an unrestrained matter is that it makes it both destructive and self-destructive. Once big business' favored right-wing candidates come into power through fundraising, political lobbying and other scheming, any democratic process is invariably scrapped, and a new dictator is born.

At this point, a new, delicate power balance emerges between business interests wanting to see their "loyalty" rewarded with state monopolies, and a dictator who, certainly over time, as his power consolidates, has the power to do as he pleases in terms of economic policy and military adventures. An "unreliable" dictator can have any businessmen shot or run the country into the ground without the elements that put him into power being able to do anything about it anymore. In case of Hitler and Mussolini, the cooperation between big business and the regimes stayed intact during the wars of conquest. However, both ultimately self-destructed, taking the lives of tens of millions of people with them, with hundreds of millions wounded and maimed. While their political henchmen were put to the gallows by the Allies, the business interests of the CFR, Pilgrims and ICC walked away, mostly unscathed.

Also in Japan, political and military leaders were strung up, while Mitsui and Mitsubishi were absolved from any wrongdoing, despite the share of the top four zaibatsu in the economy doubling during World War II: from 12 to 24 percent, having made extensive use of slave labor, and having been involved a number of controversies, such as Mitsui's stealthy Golden Bat opium cigarette that created an army of easily exploitable addict workers in China.

To summarize, with the ICC article we once again learned what we have always known, or at least suspected: big business loves to fund anything anti-labor, anti-socialist and anti-communist; can be extremely destructive and self-destructive when it gets what it wants; and almost never is held accountable for the consequences of its actions.

We know this. Now, question: what is even more destructive than big business being allowed to build up the economic and military might of imperialist-minded fascist regimes? That would be the same big business interests being allowed to build up the economic and military might of its enemies, in this case the extremely anti-capitalist Soviet regime under Trotsky, Lenin and Stalin.

That doesn't even make sense, right? Why would any capitalists in their right mind put money into the pockets of a regime actively looking to expand across the world and destroy them?

Considering this author is not focused on selling anything, the answer is simple: money and opportunity. As well as the self-destructive nature of big business when it is not being kept in check by a government and the people. The same answers as a minute ago.

In any case, enter the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, the somewhat forgotten little brother of the International Chamber of Commerce.

1920: Czarist and Bolshevik Russia unsuited for the International Chamber

As some readers of the ICC article may have noticed, countries like Hungary and Poland were quickly invited to a rapidly expanding International Chamber of Commerce in the early 1920s. However, Russia was never invited.

The reason for that is simple: communism. Hungary and Poland had not yet disappeared behind the "Iron Curtain". And in Russia the battle for communism was still waging - this since the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution.

The Bolshevik Revolution was followed by a bloody civil war between the "White Army", a coterie of anti-Bolshevik forces attacking Moscow from Eastern Europe and Eastern Russia; and the Bolshevik "Red Army" centered around Moscow, each implementing their respective "White Terror" and "Red Terror". In case of the latter, it was ordered by Lenin in 1918, with tens of thousands of executions per year.

Amidst all the fighting, various nationalizations took place at the orders of Lenin, with the West implementing a trading ban with Russia between 1918 and 1920, strengthened by a naval blockade from Great Britain and France.

All this upheaval was going on in and around Russia at the time the International Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1920. Subsequently, from 1924 to 1952, Stalin would rule the Soviet Union, continuing the human rights problem and economic difficulties. Diplomatic ties between Russia and the United States did not exist between 1917 and 1933, and were reestablished under questionable circumstances at best, all helping to explain why Russia was not invited to the International Chamber of Commerce.

^^

1914-: American-Russian Chamber

1914-1916 founding of the American-Russian Chamber: Pilgrims and CFR ties

Fact is, even before the 1917 Russian Revolution, trade with the Soviet Union was not without its headaches. U.S. administrations opposed the establishing of business, and often even diplomatic, ties to Russia due to the Czarist regime's repressive nature, with issues ranging from pogroms against Jews, who held second-class status in Russia; to the U.S. and Russia picking opposite sides in the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War, and measures against American business that followed this conflict.

Despite all these issues, the Russian-American Chamber of Commerce was incorporated in Moscow on January 4, 1914, followed by "the election of a directorate of 24 leading business men of Moscow and St. Petersburg", with an estimated 500 Russian members. 9 By 1916 it had moved its headquarters to Petrograd / St. Petersburg. 10 On January 16, 1916 an American branch, the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, was incorporated - which mainly operated under the name of its Russian counterpart. The founding president of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce was Pilgrims Society member Charles H. Boynton.

This author could not locate the founding board of directors of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce. However, if we take the board of mid 1918, we find 21 directors. 11 These include:

1. Charles H. Boynton: Founding president and director. Pilgrim anno 1907-1914, but not anymore by 1920, after he stepped down as president of the ARCC. Never CFR.


2. Samuel McRoberts: Executive manager of the Rockefeller's National City Bank, which also had people as J.P. Morgan, Jr. and Harriman on the board. National City Bank directors in the 1910s included William Rockefeller, Rockefeller inlaws James Stillman and Cyrus McCormick, Rockefeller-partner Henry Frick, Edward H. Harriman, Harriman-inlaw Cleveland Dodge, J. P. Morgan Jr., Jacob H. Schiff, Robert Lovett of Skull & Bones and Brown Brothers Harriman fame, and Knight of Malta Joseph P. Grace, the father of J. Peter Grace. 12


3. Charles Sabin: President of the Morgan-dominated Guaranty Trust. Pilgrims anno 1914-1927. founding member CFR 1921-.


4. D. G. Wing: The president of the Morgan-dominated President First National Bank of Boston.


5. Maurice Oudin: The "manager Foreign Department" of General Electric. Founding member CFR 1921-.


6. William Butterworth: President of Deer & Co. Founding member CFR 1921-.


7. Darwin Kingsley: President of New York Life Insurance. Pilgrims anno 1914-1927.


8. Charles Sargent, Jr.: A partner in Kidder, Peabody & Co.


9. Samuel Reading Bertron: Yale Skull & Bones 1885. Founder and president of the banking firm Bertron, Griscom & Co. Founding Pilgrim 1902-. Founding member CFR 1921-.

To give us something familiar to hold on to:

• Five of 21 (24%) early directors of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce belonged to the Pilgrims.
• Six of 21 (29%) directors would soon belong to the CFR.
• Combined, nine of the 21 (43%) early directors belonged to the Pilgrims or the CFR.

By the mid 1930s the board of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce still contained a decent amount of CFR members, averaging about 1 in 4 directors for the CFR. It did go down for the Pilgrims though, which makes sense considering most U.S. corporations looking to invest in Russia were not located in the New York City area, where the Pilgrims Society has always recruited from.

For now, we are going to have to pretend a little that the above board members were "founding", because the timeline is tight and it's getting messed up by not having a founding board, or at least a pre-mid 1917 one.

1916: Rockefeller, Morgan war loans to Czarist Russia

Above we identified Samuel McRoberts of the National City Bank - a bank dominated by the Rockefellers, J.P. Morgan, Harriman and other Eastern Establishment elites - as one of the earliest directors of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce. As it turns out, among the original corporations of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce in 1914 was the National City Company 13, a subsidiary of National City Bank, both of which did a lot of trade with Russia.

Apart from that, in 1916 National City Bank, together with J.P. Morgan & Co.; Guarantee Trust; Kidder, Peabody, Lee, Higginson and Company; and Harris, Forbes and Company, floated several private loans totaling at least $100,000,000 ($3 billion in 2025 dollars) to Czarist Russia to support its war effort on behalf of the Entente / Allied forces. The war supplies had to be bought in the United States. 14 In 1917, the year of the Russian revolutions, National City Bank was allowed to open a branch in St. Petersburg / Petrograd, being "the first and only American branch bank in Russia" to be allowed to do so. 15

^^

Feb. 1917: Czar deposal and aftermath

The "good" February 1917 Russian Revolution

Initially, at the start of the 1917 Russian Revolution, in late February and March, the United States under President Woodrow Wilson was fine with the removal of the Czarist regime, largely because the new, non-Tsarist "Provisional Government" under Prince Georgy Lvov and his minister of war Alexander Kerensky introduced liberal-socialist values as universal voting rights for men and women, freedom of the press, freedom of speech, etc., and on top of that - pressured or not - vowed to stay in the war against the Axis/Central powers on the side of the Allied/Entente powers. The American-Russian Chamber of Commerce was happy and quickly released an endorsement of the Provisonal Government that read:

"A liberal Russia means a progressive Russia, and such a Russia will naturally turn toward the United States for assistance in the reorganization and reconstruction of its economic resources." 16

Ten days later the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce organized a major trade conference representing 300 corporations looking to do business in Russia. 17

All seemed to be going well. The Bolshevik element already was present though and would only become stronger over time.

June 1917 Root Commission to Russia: Rockefeller, Pilgrims and ARCC-dominated

In early June 1917 the so-called "Root Commission", whose most important men were Elihu Root, Skull & Bonesman Samuel Reading Bertron, and Rockefeller inlaw Cyrus H. McCormick, went to Russia to meet with Lvov and Kerensky. 18 Besides bringing them a message of support from both big business and the Wilson administration, Root also made it clear that the Provisional Government needed to continue the fight against the Axis/Central Powers if it wanted to be a beneficiary of American loans. 19 Root's famous summarizing statement was:

"No fight, no loans." 20

Once again, it is key to understand who these messengers to Russia were:

• Elihu Root: An elite New York City lawyer with Pilgrims-tied robber baron clients as Gould, Whitney, Harriman and Andrew Carnegie. First president of the Carnegie Foundation 1910-1925 and a primary founder of Carnegie Europe. Hired skull & Bonesman and future Pilgrim Henry L. Stimson out of law school to work for him. Head of the original Council on Foreign Relations that was founded in June 1918, three years before the better-known CFR officially was incorporated, of which he was founding honorary chairman. Visited the Pilgrims Society as early as 1903, but only became an official member in the early 1920s, serving as vice president by 1924.


• Cyrus H. McCormick: His brother, Harold, married Edith Rockefeller, the daughter of John D. Rockefeller, Sr., in 1895. Along with his brother, Cyrus was president of International Harvester Corporation, a member company of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, with one or more representatives of the Morgan bank on its board. Cyrus was director of the Rockefeller's National City Bank from at least 1907 to 1925. In this period directors included William Rockefeller, Rockefeller inlaw James Stillman, Rockefeller-partner Henry Frick, Edward H. Harriman, Harriman-inlaw Cleveland Dodge, J. P. Morgan Jr., Jacob H. Schiff, Robert Lovett of Skull & Bones and Brown Brothers Harriman fame, and Knight of Malta Joseph P. Grace, the father of J. Peter Grace. 21


• Samuel Reading Bertron: Yale Skull & Bones 1885. Founder and president of the banking firm Bertron, Griscom & Co. Founding Pilgrim 1902-. Founding member CFR 1921-.

Forcing the continuation of the war was a dangerous move of the Wilson administration, Wall Street and the Provisional Government. Both women and soldiers were standing in bread lines due to major economic upheaval, the people didn't want war, and in general the Russian army lacked discipline and motivation. Lenin, with his slogan, "Peace, land, and bread" and the only one looking to withdraw from World War I, was becoming more popular by the day.

In any case, the Provisional Government under Lvov and Kerensky pushed on, marched its soldiers to the frontline, and attacked the German and Austro-Hungarian forces on June 29, 1917. The result was a massive defeat within 20 days, leaving the country to cope with 68,000 dead Russian soldiers and another 340,000 wounded or taken prisoner. An already highly insubordinate army before the latest campaign, hundreds of thousands more soldiers deserted the battle lines, with many joining the Bolshevik cause.

Days before the full-scale defeat of the Russian army, on July 16-20, half a million people, largely consisting of soldiers, sailors, industrial workers and Bolshevik agitators, protested in Petrograd against the Provisional Government. The clashes led to Kerensky taking over as head of state from Lvov, a repression of the protesters, and the arrest of Bolshevik leaders. Lenin, despite refusing to (formally) endorse the protesters when they came to his house, was forced to flee to Finland. Trotsky was arrested for some period.

July 1917 American Red Cross "relief mission": Cover for J. P. Morgan and allied mining interests to take over Russia

Already in late June 1917 the next U.S. mission was underway to Russia. Known as the "American Red Cross relief mission", it arrived at Vladivostok on July 26, taking the trans-Siberian express to Petrograd / Leningrad / Saint Petersburg to meet with Kerensky. It was little more than a thinly-veiled, combined propaganda mission for the U.S. government and Wall Street. The Red Cross supplies primarily were for the hundreds of thousands of wounded Russian soldiers, with the message of course being the same: keep your involvement in World War I.

The Red Cross mission had been authorized by the American National Red Cross War Council, headed by Morgan banker Henry P. Davison. 22 Instated on May 10, 1917, it had 6 or 7 members, with a number of additional assistants and advisors. Key members included 23:

1. Henry P. Davison (founding chair): A long-time Morgan bank partner who had been involved in the secret 1910 Jekyll Island meeting that established the Federal Reserve. A Pilgrim since 1908 and CFR member from 1926, Davison also was a director of the Astor Trust and the Morgan-dominated banks the First National Bank, Bankers Trust and Guaranty Trust. As a result he was fingered by U.S. Congress in 1912 ad 1913 as one of the key players of the "Money Trust". His son was Skull & Bones.


2. Martin Egan (staffer): The "assistant" of Henry P. Davison at both the Morgan bank and the Red Cross War Council.


3. Ivy L. Lee (staffer): The second-listed "assistant" to Henry P. Davison at the Red Cross War Council. At the same time the PR man for the Rockefellers since the 1914 Ludlow Massacre, a Pilgrim since at least '14- and a CFR from 1926 on.


4. Charles D. Norton (member): Vice president of the Morgan-dominated First National Bank of New York. Similar to Davison, part of the secret 1910 Jekyll Island Club meeting to establish the Federal Reserve.


5. Grayson M. P. Murphy (member): Vice president of the Morgan-dominated Guaranty Trust Company of New York. CFR member from 1926 on. His son became a Pilgrim.


6. John D. Ryan (member): Montana-based president of Anaconda Copper Company, a company with a heavy Pilgrims presence on its board, soon also represented in the International Chamber of Commerce.

The American Red Cross mission to Russia itself was paid for by William Boyce Thompson. 24 Officially it had two "commissioners", Dr. Frank Billings and Thompson, but history makes it clear that Boyce - the paying one - was the one in control and leading the negotiations with Kerensky. Allen Wardwell was among the mission's "deputy commissioners". Without checking up on the dozen other names listed 25, here we find yet more Morgan and related ties:

1. William Boyce Thompson: A famously wealthy copper mining magnate, who consolidated most of his interests in the Newmont Corporation that he founded in 1916. In September 1917, together with the Morgan bank, Newmont became the American branch of South Africa's newly founded Anglo American Corporation, the famous and infamous mining conglomerate of the Oppenheimer family 26 that would dominate African politics for the rest of the 20th century - at least from the British, anti-Afrikaner, Nationalist side.


2. Allen Wardwell: "Deputy commissioner" of the Red Cross Mission. Son of Thomas Wardwell, whose oil refinery was bought by John D. Rockefeller, Sr.'s Standard Oil Company in 1875. Treasurer of Standard Oil anno 1895. 27
   
   Allen himself was a director of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce for some time after his Russia trip. He served as vice president from the group's reorganization in 1926, until 1934. Wardwell was a partner in the prestigious law firm Davis Polk & Wardwell, LLP - representing the Morgan interests - and a founding member of the CFR. His main two law partners though were considerably more prestigious than he was.
   
   "Davis" in "Davis Polk & Wardwell" was John W. Davis, the chief attorney for J. P. Morgan & Company. Davis was founding president of the CFR from 1921 to 1933, a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation, the president of the English Speaking Union (1921-1938), a co-funder of the anti-New Deal Crusaders group, and an eventual president of the Pilgrims Society from 1946 to 1955.
   
   "Polk" in "Davis Polk & Wardwell" was a Frank Polk, the Pilgrims Society chairman from 1924 to 1931 and a founding CFR director from 1921 to 1943, the last three years doubling as vice president. Polk, a Scroll & Key member of 1894, was head of the American delegation at the 1919 Versailles Peace Conference, and with that one of the reasons why Morgan men were said to dominate these political proceedings.

As said, the message of this "philanthropic" American Red Cross mission to Russia was the same as the one of the earlier Root Commission: the Kerensky government was to keep Russia engaged in World War I on the side of the Allies/Entente forces, while at the same time suppress the Bolsheviks. This was no easy task, as the continued war involvement and economic repercussions deriving from that, pushed ever more civilians and soldiers into the Bolshevik camp, the only political movement looking to withdraw from the war.

On top of that, the Bolsheviks, with their slogan "Peace, Land, and Bread," pushed for land reform, in order to help farmers acquire more land, so they could actually feed themselves and make a profit. This had been a major point of friction under the Czar's regime, but the Kerensky government was not looking to make any changes on this issue either.

Knowing about the massive resistance within Russian society to the Kerensky government on the "Peace, Land, and Bread" issues, Kerensky and Thompson decided to fund their own, opposing propaganda campaign: "Fight the Kaiser and save the revolution." 28

To that order Kerensky set Thompson up with Catherine Breshkovsky, a women activist who had been publicly resisting the Czars' regime since the 1860s and who had received support from America Eastern Establishment in these efforts. Among her supporters since 1880s had been explorer and writer named George Kennan, a cousin of the younger George F. Kennan, best known as the State Department officer who introduced the anti-communist policy of 'Containment', joined the CFR in 1945 and visited Bilderberg in 1955 and 1956. Breshkovsky had been released from prison after the February Revolution and now was in close contact with the Kerensky government.

In mid August 1917 Thompson poured a million dollars into the founding of the Breshkovsky-headed Committee on Civic Education in Free Russia (CCEFR). Maybe more important really is that the Committee involved General Neuslakonsky, "in charge of propaganda for the Army." 29 Also involved were Major Frederick M. Corse, within a year a director of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce; and Colonel Raymond Robins 30, another key member of the American Red Cross mission who in 1933 would make an extremely pro-Stalin speech at the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce.

The CCEFR poured its million dollars into "a hundred or more newspapers", according to one source. 31 Another source explains the CCEFR set up "sixty existing newspapers, found[ed] twenty new publications, and establish[ed] news bureaus, soldiers' clubs, schools, and lecture series." 32 As said, all the propaganda was built around the slogan, "Fight the Kaiser and save the revolution."

It gets more interesting than this. First of all, U.S. government propaganda expert Arthur Bullard, situated in Russia, relayed back to Colonel House, president Woodrow Wilson's key advisor and a founding member in 1921 of the Council on Foreign Relations, that Thompson apparently had been spending much more than 1 million dollars. Looking at the vast extent of the CCEFR operation and the fact that Thompson also flooded the coffers of Kerensky's Social Revolutionary Party 33, this might well be true.

"I understand that much more than a million dollars has been expended by Thompson of his personal funds, but as to methods or objects I am not informed. ...

"Thompson said [to us] he was spending his own money and he would quit if he was not permitted to do it in the way he liked. Once subsequently he visited the Embassy but said nothing of this subject in the course of a thorough conversation." 34

Another important detail that appears to have been largely lost to modern authors - on purpose or not - is that the million dollars for the CCEFR that is often attributed to Thompson, actually came from J. P. Morgan & Co. 35 and was wired to Petrograd to the Rockefeller-controlled National City Bank, which in this period had names as J. P. Morgan Jr., Jacob Schiff, Edward Harriman, William Rockefeller Jr., and various Rockefeller in-laws on the board back in New York City. 36 This is how the episode was written down in a 1935 biography of Thompson:

"Thompson puffed at his cigar. "[Colonel Raymond] Robins ... I'm sending a cable tomorrow morning to the Morgans. If you'll go to the Petrograd branch of the National City Bank in a few days you'll find a credit there for one million dollars."

"There was now no impediment to organization and the development of a definite [CCEFR] program." 37

While it is likely that Thompson poured some of his own money into the CCEF and related causes as well, and certainly was deeply involved in CCEFR meetings, the information that the money came from Morgan, and also is tied to the Rockefellers, is quite crucial. To summarize, here we have:

1. the Morgan-dominated, May 1917-founded American Red Cross' "War Council" - also with the president of Anaconda Copper on the board - sending the "American Red Cross Relief Mission" to Russia;
2. the "relief mission" being funded and semi-headed by William Boyce Thompson;
3. who at that very moment, with J. P. Morgan & Co., is putting up 50% of the founding money for the Oppenheimer's famous Anglo American mining corporation in South Africa;
4. and now turns out to have used J. P. Morgan & Co. money to try and brainwash the Russian population into staying into World War I and denouncing Bolshevism.

Furthermore, and maybe most uniquely, Thompson's personal secretary during the 1917 Russia mission, Cornelius Kelleher, admitted the official head of the relief mission, Dr. Billings, had been nothing more than a frontman, and that, in fact, the American Red Cross itself served as a cover for whatever real mission was at hand:

"Billings ... believed he was in charge of a scientific mission for the relief of Russia. ... He was in reality nothing but a mask - the Red Cross complexion of the mission was nothing but a mask." 38

Billings came to believe so as well, eventually, leaving the mission because "these political operations were too much" and gaining "the impression that he was being exploited as a front for activities about which he was not informed and over which he had no control." 39 Going by the available sources, it's not made clear what exactly the purpose was of the "American Red Cross Relief Mission". We would have to deduce and conclude that it was a "mask" for big business to take control of the Russian government, and from there Russia's vast natural resources.

Seeing how extremely wealthy the Russian oligarchs became in the 1990s and what a major supplier of oil, gas and raw materials Russia continues to be over a century after Morgan and allied mining interests, from Anaconda Copper to the Anglo American Corporation, tried to take over the country, we would have to conclude that the few million dollars sunk into the 1917 coup attempt would have been well worth the risk. If a pro-U.S. government had been able to keep power, the income from the exploitation of Russia would have dwarfed the initial "investment".

To what extent other corporations were involved in the 1917 big business coup attempt in Russia, Cyrus McCormick's International Harvester Corporation and the Rockefeller's National City Bank, remains a mystery. What we can say with certainly though is that the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce was deeply tied it.

President Wilson "deceived" by big business - yet tied to it since the 1870s

One thing this author has trouble accepting at face value is that President Woodrow Wilson had no idea about any non-altruistic motives behind the mission, and even was incensed upon learning of them - as the official narrative goes. 40 Wilson would have the same narrative of being "deceived" at Versailles Peace Conference by his eminence grise and confessed alter ego, Colonel Edward House, an obscure businessman who co-founded the CFR at this conference. All this is quite silly:

1. It was Wilson who allowed the Root Mission and the Red Cross mission to pass through over objections from government personnel in Russia. Russian socialists had no respect whatsoever for the American Federation of Labor and its form of "socialism". 41 Wilson's own ambassador to Russia, David R. Francis, didn't support the Red Cross mission either. According to the ambassador, there already were too many allied missions to Russia, it had "come to fill no clearly defined mission", and there already was a surplus of medical personnel inside Russia. 42


2. It was Wilson who allowed the Morgan bank to have a virtual monopoly on Allied war supplies procurement in the United States, giving rise to accusations of war profiteering. 43


3. It was Wilson who allowed Versailles to be dominated by the Morgan bank - which everybody knew except him apparently. 44

Similar to other U.S. president, from Teddy Roosevelt and Calvin Coolidge to FDR, Wilson had ties to the "Money Trust" going back decades. Wilson's friend and earliest political supporter was his old Princeton classmate Cleveland H. Dodge, a Rockefeller inlaw who sat on the board of directors of the Rockefeller's National City Bank from at least 1907 to 1923, together with J. P. Morgan Jr., Jacob Schiff, Edward Harriman, William Rockefeller Jr., etc. That's the same bank used by Morgan and Thompson in 1917 to deposit a million dollars to that was to be used for propaganda dissemination to keep the Kerensky government in power.

Dodge was a member of an elite mining family that had deep, demonstrable ties to the Morgans, Rockefellers, Warburgs, and Vanderbilts not just through business, marriage and the Pilgrims Society, but even more visible through to the board of the 1869-founded American Museum of Natural History. All these families were on the board for decades. Even Henry P. Davison, the Red Cross "War Council" chief who authorized the 1917 mission to Russia, was elected as trustee and treasurer here in 1916.

At the same time, in 1916, Dodge was meeting Wilson in the White House to push for U.S. involvement in World War I, while he, along with Warburg and Schiff, were working with Colonel Wilson to push for amendments in legislation with regard to Glass–Steagall, and making recommendations for Federal Reserve appointments, a Federal Reserve founded as part of a secret conspiracy by these elite interests during the first term of Wilson. Wilson, even privately, offered some token opposition here, but looking at the historical board members of the Federal Reserve, also under Wilson's term, he was little more than a controlled opposition stooge.

Let's also not forget that Wilson primary secretary of State (1915-1920), Robert Lansing, had married Eleanor Foster in 1890. Eleanor was a daughter of 1892-1893 secretary of state John W. Foster, the grandfather of future secretary of state John Foster Dulles and future CIA director Allen W. Dulles. This, of course, also immediately explains why these two brothers, who grew up with David Rockefeller, were employed as young lawyers at the 1919 Versailles Peace Conference, the same Versailles Peace Conference peace conference "secretly" dominated by the Morgan bank, and also where Morgan-Thompson partner Ernest Oppenheimer in the founding of Anglo American Corporation in 1917, tagged along as an "observer" with the South African delegation.

Wilson had no clue about the true intentions of the American Red Cross relief mission to Russia in 1917? It sounds silly. It's clear Wilson was continually outflanked by Eastern Establishment big business and likely allowed to be U.S. president because he had no backbone. As even a cousin of the establishment diplomat and politologist George Kennan wrote:

"Wilson was a man who had never had any particular interest in, or knowledge of, Russian affairs. ... Like many other Americans, he felt a distaste and antipathy for Czarist autocracy as he knew it, and a sympathy for the revolutionary movement in Russia. [In the end] Wilson serves American war industry just as Kaiser Wilhelm serves the iron and steel industry of Germany." 45

Aug.-Sep. 1917: Big business still hopeful over investing in Russia

The first few weeks of the Kerensky government, and also when J. P. Morgan, Jr. and William Boyce Thompson, were aiding it with the spreading of pro-West, anti-Bolshevik propaganda, there still was hope of this government surviving and big business being ale to thrive in Russia, at least after the civil war with the Bolsheviks was over.

Also present in Russia in "the first part of the year", possibly tagging along in an unofficial capacity with the Root Commission of June-July, Charles Boynton, the Pilgrim and founding president of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, returned from visiting Russia in early August. On August 8, 1917 he was quoted in the New York Times as saying there was plenty of hope for the Provisional Government of Kerensky and its armed forces to survive. 46

Boynton wrote the September 1917 paper 'Present Conditions in Russia' with Bertron, who in relation to this report gave a speech about of his Russia trip to the Bankers' Club in New York that month, noting in detail how surprisingly well the trans-Siberian railroad had been constructed - the one that had been built with steel coming from J. P. Morgan protege Charles Schwab. The biggest difference he noticed was its lack of efficiency, requiring much more personnel to operate than American railroads. Bertron was thinking of big changes in Russia though, fueled by big business:

"The effective solution of the transportation problem in Russia will in itself be the solution of many of the problems connected with the reorganization of Russia's industrial and commercial life." 47

Also in September of 1917, on the 4th, the commercial attache of the Russian Embassy in the United States, C. J. Medzikhovski, gave a speech to the Advertising Club of New York. In the speech he explained how his government couldn't wait to work with the businessmen of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce after the Civil War with the Bolsheviks was over:

"Our joyful task: the building of a new, free Russia. The time to prepare for this great work is now and preparedness is advisable not only for us, but also for you American manufacturers, merchants and bankers. ...

"Mr. Murphy, vice-president of the Guaranty Trust Company [under president Charles Sabin, an ARCC member]; Mr. [Samuel] McRoberts, vice-president of the National City Bank [and an ARCC member]; Mr. [Charles] Boynton, president of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, and many others ... call your attention to the unlimited possibilities of Russia to America. There are railroads to be built, many kinds of plants and factories to be erected, coal mines and oil fields to be developed, etc.

"Look into their reports and you will see how tremendous is the field for your initiative [and] work in Russia after the war." 48

Sep. 1917: Lord Milner and Morgan backing the "Kornilov Putsch" against Kerensky and the Bolsheviks

General Lavr Kornilov, just about Russia's only celebrated military leader of this period due to a temporary victory against German forces, was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army in July 1917. By September he would be imprisoned by Kerensky for an attempted coup, known as the "Kornilov Affair" or "Kornilov Putsch".

What exactly transpired between July and September with regard to the "Kornilov Affair" is not known in full detail to this day. That having been said, mainstream sources, as far as they even touch on the affair, do have a habit of ignoring the case for an elite, international, right-wing coup attempt that involved vastly bigger interests than just a single general. Alexander Kerensky gave a ton of details in this regard in his 1919 and 1927 biographies, with Colonel Raymond Robins of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce confirming Kerensky's claim of the involvement of the British in the affair. Also seeing what an ultraright-winger General Kornilov was, this fits perfectly with the accounts of Kerensky and Robins.

For those that forgot: Colonel Robins was part of the 1917 "American Red Cross Relief Mission" and worked under William Boyce Thompson - picking up J. P. Morgan money and putting it in the Committee on Civic Education media propaganda organ; and later testifying to the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce about the virtues of investing in Stalin's Russia.

As explained by Kerensky, the affair started immediately with the appointment of General Lavr Kornilov in late July 1917 as commander-in-chief of the Russian military forces. This change of leadership was necessary after the failed military campaign of Russia against the Central Powers - Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria - and the "July Days" protest that forced Prince Georgy Lvov out of office. Kerensky liked that Kornilov blamed senior officers of the military as much as the foot-soldiers themselves for their defeat in World War I. Kerensky also agreed with Kornilov that the death penalty should be reinstated for deserters from the army in order to bring back a sense of order.

However, Kornilov was very confrontational, entitled and demanding with Kerensky, almost causing his sacking on day one. This attitude continued though. He started to conspire with General Anton Denikin, another right-winger; and Kerensky's new deputy secretary of war, Boris Savinkov, a socialist revolutionary with a terrorist, anti-Czarist background. All these men later became important White Army commanders, with Kornilov and Denikin abhorring Savinkov's leftist background. At this point in time though, they were all conspirators.

In early August, Denikin, "who prided himself on never playing the game of hide and seek", freely stated to Kerensky that Kornilov had been approached at the front by a supporter of the Czarist Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, but that he and Kornilov instead "embraced each other" over a plot to give Kornilov "supreme power", so that he can "bring the country to the Constituent Assembly." 49 Kerensky summoned Kornilov, who pretty much told him he indeed was thinking of a coup:

"Well, what of it? It may be necessary to try even a dictatorship. Many will perish but the rest will finally take the army into their hands." 50

Kerensky claims these sentences were uttered in "such completely hypothetical manner", with Kornilov being a known hothead, "that even this did not make me suspicious of Korniloff personally." 51 A little odd, but fact is that Kerensky, without the Bolsheviks, did not have much of a power base to oppose the military.

Days later, the All-Russian Conference took place in Moscow. It's here that Kerensky noticed how Kornilov was heavily supported by British imperialists as Lord Milner:

"General Korniloff came to the Moscow Conference in great pomp. At the station he was met by the entire elite of the old capital. Wealthy ladies in white dresses and flowers in hand fell on their knees before him; politicians wept with joy. Officers carried the "popular hero" on their shoulders. In an automobile surrounded by cavalry composed of exotic tribesmen, Korniloff, following the old Czarist custom, went from the station to the Kremlin to pray at the shrine of the Iversk Madonna. On returning to his railway carriage, General Korniloff began receiving delegations and deputations of various kinds. ...

"On the streets of Moscow pamphlets were being distributed, entitled "Korniloff, the National Hero." These pamphlets were printed at the expense of the British Military Mission and had been brought to Moscow from the British Embassy in Petrograd in the railway carriage of General Knox, British military attache. ...

"[Aleksei Feodorovich] Aladin, a former labor member of the Duma, arrived from England, whither he had fled in 1906, after the dissolution of the first Duma. [He] brought to General Korniloff a letter from Lord Milner, British War Minister, expressing his approval of a military dictatorship in Russia and giving his blessing to the enterprise. This letter naturally served to encourage the conspirators greatly. Aladin [now] was given first place next to Zavoiko in the entourage of General Korniloff." 52

In his older 1919 book, Kerensky avoided mentioning General Knox and Lord Milner by name in relation to the planned coup. He did, however discuss Russian co-conspirators as Aleksei Feodorovich Aladin, a former Duma member who lived in Britain for a long time and who eventually became a White Army staff captain; and Vasilii Zavoiko, a businessman at the center of the right-wing coup plot who acted as a personal guide to General Kornilov. 53 Kerensky:

"A whole series of organizations, before the Conference, carried threatening resolutions to the effect that Kornilov must not be dismissed. A ceremonious entry of Kornilov into Moscow was being organized... A pamphlet was distributed in Moscow entitled "Kornilov - The People's Leader." ...

Some dubious persons, such as Aladin and Zavoiko, were accepted in their midst; they formed the link between the military conspirators, the civil politicians, and the financial circles that were supporting them. In this way a real organization was created... [There was] financial help of a certain group of banking-houses..." 54

The Moscow conference was used by "the conspirators" to feel out if they could stage a coup right then and there. This proved to not be the case. In the following days Aladin, followed by Lvov, directly, tried to convince Kerensky of "strengthening the Government's authority by the inclusion in it of new elements with "power" behind them." 55 This failed, and somehow Kerensky didn't think much of it, apparently because suggestions along these lines were very common in this period. Despite that, Aladin, together with the deposed head of state, Georgy Lvov, were described by Kerensky as semi-secret envoys of the U.S., British and Russian big business and military cabal looking to "reason" with him.

What appears to have happened in the affair is that foreign powers, most notably the British, were looking to use Kornilov and allied generals to invade Petrograd and suppress the Bolshevik forces, thinking Kerensky was too soft and compromising towards leftists and communists in general. Petrograd was Russia's capital and the country political hub. It is also where the Bolsheviks gained their initial footing due to a large, exploited working class, mixed with protesting farmers and military men. As partly already mentioned, British elements mentioned who supported the coup involved the following persons:

• Lord Milner: While serving on Prime Minister David Lloyd George's five-men War Council, Milner allegedly wrote a letter to Kerensky urging him to welcome Kornilov into Petrograd.
  
  Milner almost is as interesting a name as J.P. Morgan, Jr., due to this person's history as a close ally of South African diamond miner Cecil Rhoades, with whom he was closely allied during the Second Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. Both men also represented the secretive "Rhoades Secret Society" and "Round Table Network". Back in England, in 1906, Milner was appointed a director of the London Joint Stock Bank (acquired by the Midland Bank in 1918), becoming the bank's chairman in 1910. In the mean time he kept involved in the secretive, elite Rhodes Trust, serving as chairman from 1917 to 1925. After brief stints as secretary of war (1918-1919) and secretary of the colonies (1919-1920), in 1921 Milner was appointed a director of the Rothschild-controlled Rio Tinto Zinc mining concern, serving as chairman from 1922 until his death in 1925.


• PM David Lloyd George: Not mentioned directly, but 1916-1922 British prime minister David Lloyd George does appear to have supported intervention in Russian politics. First, during World War I, George actively lobbied his French counterpart to make an exclusive war materiel purchasing deal with J. P. Morgan. We also know that Great Britain, under David Lloyd George and alongside the United States, France and Japan, financially and logistically supported White Russian intervention against the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War of 1917-1920. This included heavy support for the genocide-inclined Admiral Alexander Kolchak.


• Adm. Sir William Reginald "Blinker" Hall: Director of Naval Intelligence 1914-1919. Admiral Kolchak had been invited to the United States and Great Britain in July 1917. During a 1920 interrogation, Kolchak stated that a British "General Hall" had told him in this period that Russia "can only be saved by a military dictatorship, because, if things go on as they are, you will be forced to make peace with the Germans and you will fall into their clutches." 56 It seems that Kornilov fit that bill to a tee.


• General Alfred Knox: British military attache in Russia 1911 - late 1917, until some time after the Bolshevik revolution in early November. During the subsequent Russian Civil War, which began in November 1917, Knox was the British head of the international Siberian Intervention of the U.S., U.K., Japan and China in support of the White Army, mainly under Admiral Kolchak. The 500 men under his command would mainly train Kolchak's forces.


• Lieutenant Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson: Came from a family of diplomats and MPS. British commander of an armored car squadron in Russia, after World War I trench warfare had made the use of these vehicles impossible on the western front. First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill personally funded the squadron he was put in charge of.

As for Oliver Locker-Lampson, he was tasked with helping to suppress the Bolshevik rebellion in Petrograd. Locker-Lampson didn't suppress the rebellion directly. He commanded a group of "armoured vehicles", with the British soldiers wearing Russian uniforms, that escorted General Kornilov's forces to the city. This makes it sound as if there existed an alliance between the British and the clique surrounding Kornilov. However, this could be a bit of an overstatement. Enter the slightly lefty-wing Colonel Raymond Robins again, the American working under William Boyce Thompson - picking up J. P. Morgan money and putting it in the Committee on Civic Education media propaganda organ; and later testifying to the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce about the virtues of investing in Stalin's Russia. It's that same Colonel Robins who witnessed the entire event, explaining:

"He (General Knox--Ed.) continued: 'You should have been with Kornilov' - and then flushed remembering that I knew that British officers dressed in Russian uniforms, in British tanks had followed on Kornilov as he advanced and all but opened fire on Kornilov's troops when they refused to advance further than Pskov [about 100 miles south-west to Petrograd, on the Ukrainian border]." 57

Robins, of course, in this period still was trying to work with the Kerensky government. And considering the British still considered themselves a superpower, may well have acted alone on this case.

Initially it appears that Kerensky may have been open to the idea of allowing Kornilov to repress the Bolsheviks inside Petrograd. However, he certainly started to become skeptical after conversations with the go-between between himself and Kornilov, the deposed head of state Georgy Lvov. Based on what Lvov communicated, Kerensky started to suspect he was either to share power with Kornilov or would have been deposed of all together - maybe even get killed in the process.

As a result, Kerensky did something very radical. As Kornilov's forces were moving towards Petrograd, even after a stand-down order of Kerensky, the latter released Leon Trotsky and other Bolshevik leaders from prison and armed their Bolshevik forces in an attempt to defeat the Kornilov insurrection. All the anti-Kornilov factions were brought together under the "Committee for Struggle Against Counterrevolution", founded on September 11, 1917. The Bolsheviks used their influence with workers to sabotage the railway lines Kornilov was using to bring his men towards Petrograd, at the same time infiltrating and peppering Kornilov's forces with so much communist propaganda that most of his force had dispersed by September 13. Kornilov was apprehended and tossed in prison.

Many supporters of Kerensky turned against him after the "Kornilov Affair": for having released, recruited and armed the Bolsheviks and for having taken strong measures against a defeated "war hero" as Kornilov. Meanwhile, the armed Bolsheviks had no intention of giving back the weapons they received from Kerensky. With their leaders once again free to rebel against the government, the Kerensky government would be overthrown in little over a month.

Question is: Did Kerensky have reason to be worried about General Kolchak? It appears so. After the Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917, General Kornilov escaped from prison and became one of the more prominent White Russian army leaders until his death on the battlefield in 1920. All descriptions of him paint him as having been "extreme-right" 58, favoring a "rejection of political parties in general" 59, a perpetual military coup plotter who hated "communists, socialist, and democrats alike", civilian bureaucrats in general, and "held the entire intelligentsia ... responsible for Russia's troubles." 60 Kornilov preferred blowing up the Bolshevik headquarters during an important meeting of its leadership, adding to those in the room:

"Even if we have to burn half of Russia ... shed the blood of three fourths of Russians, nevertheless, it is necessary to save Russia." 61

Once engaged in the Russia Civil War as one of the leaders of the Volunteer Army, at least in the early months of the war, he instated a policy of not taking prisoners of war, telling his men:

"Do not capture these [Red Guard / Red Army] criminals. The greater the terror, the greater our victories." 62

While specific details are lacking, it appears that Kornilov's forces were among those engaged in the "White Terror": the mass torture and execution of any and all Bolshevik sympathizers. This was countered, of course, by the "Red Terror", which wasn't any better.

^^

Nov. 1917: The Bolshevik Revolution

Nov. 1917: The Bolsheviks take power

Predictably, and as mentioned, the Bolsheviks never gave back the weapons they were handed by prime minister Alexander Kerensky to stop General Kornilov's attack on Petrograd in September 1917, an attack that in the end didn't even manifest. The leaders of the Bolshevik Revolution, including Leon Trotsky, now were out of prison as well and ready to continue their coup plans. On top of that, the Russian military elements and civilians who had supported Kerensky before, came to oppose him due to his collaboration with the Bolsheviks and the fact that he imprisoned a national military hero.

This enthusiasm did not last long. Money for pro-war, anti-Bolshevik propaganda by the Kerensky government and J. P. Morgan and allies ran out, with the Wilson administration refusing to pick up the tab. Even with the propaganda campaign in place, the situation quickly became untenable. Anger in Russian society continued due to continued involvement in World War I, economic problems, a refusal for land reform for farmers, and killed protesters over the summer.

On October 23, 1917 Trotsky's Petrograd Soviet openly embraced a revolt of the army against the Kerensky government. The next day Bolshevik-supporting sailors occupied the Petrograd harbor, with tens of thousands of soldiers joining the uprising. In the mean time, Lenin and Stalin kept organizing their Red Guards and new Military Revolutionary Committee that organized farmers, factory workers and dissenting soldiers into armed militias. On November 7, the Red Guards occupied government offices, leading to the fall of the Kerensky government and a withdrawal of Russia from World War II on the side of the United States, Britain and France.

From this moment on, Russia's government turned communist and would be embroiled in a civil war.

Lenin and Trotsky support by German Kaiser and Jewish bankers as Schiff, Warburg, Rothschild

For many decades there have been "rumblings" that the 1917 Bolshevik revolution, which brought communism to the world, was financed by western bankers. While the details still are very obscure, there actually is at least some truth to that looking at the two most important leaders of the revolution: Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky.

As for Lenin, the German government allowed him and his entourage to travel from Zurich, through Berlin, and on through Sweden and Finland, to Petrograd (St. Petersburg), for the simple reason that he and his group desired to withdraw Russia from World War I opposite the Germans. In fact, it appears the Kaiser and several financiers were funding the Bolsheviks for this very reason. As Smithsonian Magazine summarized it:

"On April 9 [1917 - as Leon Trotsky and Nikolai Bukharin were attempting to make their way into Russia from New York City], Lenin and his 31 comrades gathered at Zurich station. A group of about 100 Russians, enraged that the revolutionaries had arranged passage by negotiating with the German enemy, jeered at the departing company. "Provocateurs! Spies! Pigs! Traitors!" the demonstrators shouted, in a scene documented by historian Michael Pearson. "The Kaiser is paying for the journey... They're going to hang you ... like German spies." (Evidence suggests that German financiers did, in fact, secretly fund Lenin and his circle.) As the train left the station, Lenin reached out the window to bid farewell to a friend. "Either we'll be swinging from the gallows in three months or we shall be in power," he predicted." 63

As for the financing of Lenin and Trotsky, a February 1918 U.S. State Department file summarizes some of the acquired information at the time. As financial partners of the Bolshevik leadership, it references Nya Banken, Morgan's Guaranty Trust, "Kaiserjew" Max Warburg, and the Disconto-Gesellschaft. The latter entity was a major pro-German imperialist Jewish bank of the Salomonsohn family, which was partnered with Max Warburg in various ventures, including in taking control of "most productive elements of the Ukraine’s economy." 64 The Disconto-Gesellschaft was partnered with the Rothschilds in the Austro-Hungarian empire. 65 In 1901 the Disconto-Gesellschaft bought the Rothschild branch in Frankfurt, after the family abandoned the city for not being a major financial center anymore. 66 Considering how obscure this information is, the State Department file is extensively cited below to give as much context as possible:

"File No. 862.20261/53. The Ambassador in Russia (Francis) to the Secretary of State. [Telegram] Petrograd, February 9, 12 p.m., to February 13, 1918, 1 a.m. ...

"The following documentary evidence, tending to prove Lenin and Trotsky and other Bolsheviki leaders [are] in German pay and that [the] disruption of Russia is but one move in [a] plan of Germany to sow disorganization in [the] Entente countries [Great Britain and France in alliance with Russia], reached me from widely different sources. I am expecting further evidence from the same sources but send incomplete data now available hoping that Washington may at once add its resources to the search for correlated evidence to prove or disprove accusation. All documents, except letter signed Yoffe [Joffe], are said to be from the files of "Kontrerazvedka," Government secret service organized under [former Russian prime minister Alexander] Kerensky. ...

"Note: This [document] outline of basic financial structure begun [in] February 1914, five months before war was launched and still in operation; notice reappearance in subsequent Lenin messages, towns Lulea and Vardo, likewise reference to American banks. Olof Aschberg, one of the heads of the Nya Banken, came to Petrograd month ago and boasted that N. B. was the Bolsheviki bank. He was overheard by one of our own group. [There are ties here to] Guarantee Trust Co. [Guaranty Trust Co.]

"DOCUMENT NO. 3: "Circular November 2, 1914, from the Imperial Bank to the representatives of the Nya Banken and the agents of the Diskonto [Disconto] Gesellschaft and of the Deutsche Bank.

"At the present time there have been concluded conversations between the authorized agents of the Imperial Bank and the Russian revolutionaries, Messrs. Zenzinov and Lunaeharski. Both the mentioned persons addressed themselves to several financial men who, for their part, addressed themselves to our representatives. We are ready to support the agitation and propaganda projected by them in Russia on the absolute condition that the agitation and propaganda (carried on?) by the above-mentioned Messrs. Z. and L. will touch the active armies at the front. ...

"Addition as part of document: Z. and L. got in touch with Imperial Bank of Germany through the bankers (D?) Rubenstein, Max Warburg and Parvus."

"Note: L. is the present People's Commissioner of Education. Z. is not a Bolshevik, but a right Social Revolutionist and in the discard, whereabouts unknown. Parvus and Warburg both figure in the Lenin and Trotsky documents. P. is at Copenhagen. W. chiefly works from Stockholm.

"DOCUMENT NO. 9: "Mr. Raphael Scholnickan, Haparanda.
Dear Comrade: The office of the banking house M. Warburg has opened, in accordance with [the] telegram from the Rhenish Westphalian Syndicate, an account for the undertaking of Comrade Trotsky. The attorney [?] purchased arms and has organized their transportation [by train] and delivery track [through] Lulea and [seemingly separately, North-East Norwegian island town] Vardo to the office of Essen & ... Receivers and a person authorized to receive the money demanded by Comrade Trotsky.
J. Fürstenberg"

"Note: This is the first reference to Trotsky. It connects him with banker Warburg and with Fürstenberg. Lulea is a Swedish town near Haparanda [the train moved through Lulea and then Haparanda at the Swedish-Finnish border].

"DOCUMENT NO. 10: "Lulea, October 2, 1917. Mr. Antonov, Haparanda.
Comrade Trotsky's request has been carried out. From the account of the syndicate and the Ministry (probably Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Berlin, press division) 400,000 kroner have been taken and remitted to Comrade Sonia who will call on you with this letter and will hand you the said sum of money.
J. Fürstenberg."

Note: Antonov [Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko] is the chief military leader of the Bolsheviki. He was in command of forces that took St. Petersburg. He is now in field against Kaledin and Alexeev. At the date of this letter Trotsky was already at the head of Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik revolution was only a month away." 67

Active alongside Max Warburg in subverting Russia at the time was Hugo Stinnes, Germany's most politically-infuential industralist until his death in 1924 and mentor to key Adolf Hitler financier Fritz Thyssen. Warburg and Stinnes both were collaborating with Germany's foreign ministry in the creation in Russia of "a publishing house, which would become the centre of pro-German propaganda." 68 Stinnes put up most of the funds, apparently also to influence other aspects of the Russian press: "It is likely that some of the money intended for influencing the Russian press in favour of Germany and peace reached, via Kolyshko, Maxim Gorki's [Bolshevik] paper Novaia Zhizn." 69 Whatever funds Max Warburg put up, at the very least he "thought the project not only plausible, but profitable." 70

As the above document already demonstrates, not just Lenin, but also fellow Bolshevik coup plotter and leader Leon Trotsky received similar support from major bankers. Trotsky in particular is tied in the document to arms shipments paid for through the M. M. Warburg banking house, headed by Max Warburg (1867-1946), from 1910 until fleeing to the United States in 1938 to avoid Nazi persecution. The involvement of Max Warburg by itself pretty much demonstrates formal German government policy, as in the years prior to and during World War I (1914-1918) Max was a personal financial advisor to Kaiser Wilhelm II. Max also participated in the negotiations for the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, after Kaiser Wilhelm II had abdicated. 71

There was more to this though than just German government policy. Meanwhile, Max Warburg's brothers, Paul Warburg (1868-1932) and Felix Warburg (1871-1937), were operating in the United States. In March 1895 Felix here married Frieda Schiff, daughter of Jewish banker Jacob Schiff (1847–1920) and his wife Therese Loeb Schiff. Schiff had been a key partner in New York investment firm Kuhn, Loeb & Co. since 1875. In October 1895, also in New York City, Paul Warburg married to Nina Loeb, daughter of Solomon Loeb, one of the founders of Kuhn, Loeb & Co., which by 1912 was considered a junior partner in America's notorious "Money Trust", behind J.P. Morgan & Co. 72 So while Max Warburg back in Germany served as a principal financial advisor to Kaiser Wilhelm II - an enemy country to the United States during World War I - Paul and Felix Warburg in the United States were at least as productive. From the perspective of Paul Warburg:

• Similar to his brother Felix, no later than 1907, a a member of the Pilgrims Society, together with Jacob Schiff (a founding member), Andrew Carnegie (by 1907), John D. Rockefeller (attendee since 1908, but only formally by 1933) and sons, the Morgans (from 1910), Cornelius Vanderbilt III (no later than an executive by 1914), and later on, the Mellons. The British royal family and key London bankers were members from the British side of the Pilgrims.


• Part of the 1910 Jekyll Island meeting that established the Federal Reserve, together with the Morgan and Rockefeller interests. Subsequently one of the original Federal Reserve board members from 1914 and second vice chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1916 to 1918.


• Founding trustee of the New York Foundation 1909-1932, together with Jacob Schiff (1909-1920) and later trustees Felix Warburg (1912-1937) and Mortimer Schiff (1912-1931). Isaac Seligman was another early trustee.


• Trustee Brookings Institution from 1922 on, until at least 1929.


• Founding or very early director of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) from at least 1922, together with the Morgan and Rockefeller interests.

The Warburg-Schiff connection to the Bolsheviks also extended from Germany to the United States. When Lenin's Bolshevik ally Leon Trotsky arrived in New York City in January 1917, a certain Arthur Concors, the superintendent and director of the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS), waited for him on the pier. As Trotsky spoke no English, Concors did the talking for him, promoting him to the New York Times and New York Herald Tribune as a persecuted "peace advocate", who, during these World War I years had been booted out of Czarist Russia, France and Spain for being "a follower of Karl Marx" and for making the case that Russia should withdraw from World War I, which was fighting on the side of Great Britain, France and Italy. Earlier, at the start of the war, Trotsky also had been booted out of the Kaiser's Germany for being a Marxist journalist.

After introducing Trotsky to the media at the pier, Arthur Concors took Trotsky to the "Astor Hotel [on] 42nd Street". 73 residing in New York City, Trotsky preferred to portray himself as a "fighter for the Revolutionary International", this to New York City's newspaper Novy Mir, edited by his close friend, Nikolai Bukharin. To the New Yorker Volkszeitung Trotsky soon afterwards said:

"Honestly, this [expulsion from Europe of mine] isn't surprising in light of the fierce opposition we posed to the 'socialist' and the 'capitalist' war warmongers."

Trotsky protector Arthur Concors' position as superintendent and director of the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS) is interesting, because the biggest financier of HAIS in this period was none other than Jacob Schiff, whom we just discussed. Schiff's son-in-law, Felix Warburg, and his brother Paul Warburg, all worked at Kuhn, Loeb & Co., with their brother Max Warburg advising Kaiser Wilhelm II and helping to bring Lenin into Russia to overthrow the Czars. So that's quite the coincidence. In fact, Jacob Schiff wasn't just a key financier of the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS). He sat on the advisory board. An advisory board for 1917 couldn't be found by this author, but one from 1911 showed the following names:

1. Jacob Schiff: Pilgrims Society with in-laws Paul and Felix Warburg, the Morgans and Andrew Carnegie.
2. Louis Marshall: Close fried of Jacob Schiff and attorney for Kuhn, Loeb & Co.
3. Isaac Seligman: Married to Guta Loeb, daughter of banker Solomon Loeb, a co-founder of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. Also at the New York Foundation with Schiff and the Warburgs. Also a member of the Japan Society, where Schiff was a director.
4. Dr. Morris Loeb: Son of Solomon Loeb. A chemist, who died in 1912.
5. Cyrus Leo Sulzberger I: From the family that founded the New York Stock Exchange and became publishers of the New York Times. His son was a New York Times journalist internally referred to as a "known asset" by the CIA. Also on the American Jewish Committee with Schiff and Straus and Mayer.
6. Mayer Sulzberger: Close advisor to Jacob Schiff.
7. Oscar Straus: First Jewish cabinet member under President Teddy Roosevelt. Close advisor to Jacob Schiff. 74


8. ALSO: Paul and Felix Warburg: At least some involvement in HIAS through meetings in the 1910s and 1920s. Seemingly listed as Life Members anno 1913. 75 From 1914 Felix was the founding chair of the Joint Distribution Committee, with key seed funding coming from his father-in-law, Jacob Schiff.

So yes, it's this network of wealthy Jewish financiers that gave Trotsky a home in the United States. Upon hearing of the Russian Revolution of February 1917, Trotsky and Bukharin left for Russia. It seems as if the Jewish bankers' clique surrounding Jacob Schiff and the Warburgs took care of the safe passage of Trotsky and his 275 revolutionaries from New York to Europe on March 27, 1917. The British Navy intercepted Trotsky, however, imprisoned him on Nova Scotia. Due to pressure from communist forces in the Russian government, the British released Trotsky again on 29 April 1917, two weeks after Max Warburg and the Kaiser railroaded Lenin back into Russia, who arrived on April 16, 1917. It appears weapons were shipped into Russia as well in this period. On May 17, 1917, Trotsky entered Russia.

Trotsky was arrested on August 7, 1917, after a failed Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd. In mid September he was released though by Alexander Kerensky to help protect Petrograd from the looming take-over by General Lavr Kornilov. This attack never came. On October 8, 1917 Trotsky was elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. On November 7, 1917, Kerensky was pushed out of office, with the weapons he himself had supplied the Bolsheviks with to defend against General Lavr Kornilov.

So why did these international Jewish financiers finance Lenin, Trotsky and their Bolshevik forces. We know that Max Warburg did it on behalf of the German Kaiser, to get Russia out of World War I on the side of the British and French. This worked. Secondly, it is speculated that Jewish bankers funded Lenin and Trotsky, because they wanted to get rid of the Czarist system, whose anti-Jewish policies had led to various pogroms and the subsequent manufacturing of the 1905-released 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion'.

Whatever the exact reasoning, the Jewish bankers in New York were not exactly doing the bidding of sitting Entente governments as the U.S., Great Britain and France, none of them wanting Trotsky in Russia and end up withdrawing this country from World War I. But he still ended up there.Also, it appears that Trotsky's ties to these bankers extended to some time before 1914. From October 1907 to 1914 Trotsky lived in exile in Vienna. In October 1908 Trotsky joined the editorial board of Pravda, a magazine that was smuggled into Russia. Hence, he had some connections and standing in Austria's capital. And at least according to a certain journalist named "M. Waldwan", who knew Trotsky in Vienna 76, these connections extended to Baron Rothschild:

"Living in Vienna before the world war [in the early 1910s], [Trotsky] had enjoyed spending days at the popular Cafe Central ... playing chess with all comers, including celebrities like Baron Rothschild." 77

True or not, the Rothschild connection fits with international Jewish financiers soon serving as patron of Trotsky. It certainly also makes one wonder what exactly Trotsky and Rothschild discussed in this early stage.

Trotsky and Lenin's genocidal "Red Terror"

In contrast to Nazism and the Holocaust, the crimes of Soviet leaders only are superficially known in the West, to the point most people doubt the facts. Stalin is known to have been a bad person, but when it comes to the details, few people have any clue. Questions surrounding genocide against Lenin and Trotsky aren't answerable by most westerners at all, mostly due to a lack of detail and genocide of the working classes apparently being so antithetical to "worker's rights".

The early Bolshevik leadership of Lenin, Stalin and Trotsky was part of a larger clique, prominent names of which were Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, Lazar Kaganovich, Karl Radek and Maxim Litvinov. It is noteworthy that except for Stalin, and with Lenin apparently not knowing about his (partial) ancestry, these men were all Jews. Maybe this is because this clique was oppressed the most in Czarist Russia, but, as we shall see, the skepticism this led to resulted in tens of thousands of Russian Jews being raped, tortured and murdered by White Armies in the "White Terror".

Lenin, Stalin and Trotsky never were operating as "loners" in their "anti-imperialist" and "anti-capitalist" quest. Even back in 1907, when Lenin and Stalin organized the Tiflis bank robbery, resulting in 40 deaths and 50 more wounded, many of them involving civilians, they were operating within an international Bolshevik party system. The party had forbidden these robberies and kidnappings targeting the wealthy, but in the end people like Lenin and Stalin never were held accountable as true "loners" would have been.

Maybe it's not surprising when you get murderous bank robbers in power, who continually champion a questionable concept of a "proletarian dictatorship" ("workers class dictatorship"), that you're not going to set the foundation for a "worker's paradise". Whatever the Bolsheviks represented, they became a genocidal regime once in power. Part of their rhetoric made sense, in the sense that there has been a long history of the workers class being exploited by capitalist-inclined middle and higher classes, who often receive help in staying in power from foreign countries. The instant resorting to mass murder, and the endless name-calling of the middle class ("rabid", "avaricious", "bloated", "bestial", "vampires", "bloodsuckers", leeches"), should have been a big red flag though. As Lenin wrote in August 2018:

"A wave of kulak [a wealthy peasant with considerable land] revolts is sweeping across Russia. ... We know very well that if the kulaks were to gain the upper hand they would ruthlessly slaughter hundreds of thousands of workers, in alliance with the landowners and capitalists, restore back-breaking conditions for the workers, abolish the eight-hour day and hand back the mills and factories to the capitalists.

"That was the case in all earlier European revolutions when, as a result of the weakness of the workers, the kulaks succeeded in turning back from a republic to a monarchy, from a working people’s government to the despotism of the exploiters, the rich and the parasites. This happened before our very eyes in Latvia, Finland, the Ukraine and Georgia. Everywhere the avaricious, bloated and bestial kulaks joined hands with the landowners and capitalists against the workers and against the poor generally. Everywhere the kulaks wreaked their vengeance on the working class with incredible ferocity. Everywhere they joined hands with the foreign capitalists against the workers of their own country. ...

"The kulaks are the most brutal, callous and savage exploiters, who in the history of other countries have time and again restored the power of the landowners, tsars, priests and capitalists. The kulaks are more numerous than the landowners and capitalists. Nevertheless, they are a minority. ...

"There is no doubt about it. The kulaks are rabid foes of the Soviet government. Either the kulaks massacre vast numbers of workers, or the workers ruthlessly suppress the revolts of the predatory kulak minority of the people against the working people’s government. There can be no middle course. Peace is out of the question: even if they have quarrelled, the kulak can easily come to terms with the landowner, the tsar and the priest, but with the working class - never. ...

"Ruthless war on the kulaks! Death to them! Hatred and contempt for the parties which defend them-the Right Socialist-Revolutionaries, the Mensheviks, and today's Left Socialist-Revolutionaries! The workers must crush the revolts of the kulaks with an iron hand, the kulaks who are forming an alliance with the foreign capitalists against the working people of their own country."

Already soon after the November 7, 1917 Russian Revolution, and apparently some time before the creation of the Cheka secret police on December 20, 1917, Trotsky proclaimed:

"We are applying [violence] against our class enemies, but know that not later than a month hence this terror will take a more terrible form on the model of the terror of the great revolutionaries of France. Not a fortress, but the guillotine will [await] for our enemies!" 78

The next year, Grigory Zinoviev, at the time the chairman of the Petrograd Soviet (City Council) as a follow-up to Lenin and soon the chairman of the Communist International (1919-1926), added:

"To overcome our enemies we must have our own socialist militarism. We must carry along with us 90 million out of the 100 million of Soviet Russia's population. As for the rest, we have nothing to say to them. They must be annihilated." 79

Neither Trotsky nor Zinoviev was exaggerating. Already in December 1917 and January 1918 the Red Army "massacred the inhabitants of the two most bourgeois streets in Sebastopol", with similar violence taking place in cities as Simferopol, Eupatoria and Yalta 80:

"Particularly brutal were the massacres perpetrated by sailors of the Black Sea Fleet in the Crimea, such as the notorious St. Bartholomew's Eve carnage in Evpatoria in mid-January 1918, when some 700 officers and civilians were butchered on board visiting naval vessels, or tortured and drowned, [77] whilst in February about 800 officers and civilians were slaughtered at Sevastopol. [78] On 18 January, Soviet troops occupied Taganrog in the Don Country and, having concluded an armistice with cadets of the local military school, then proceeded to execute them most cruelly; a batch of fifty were thrown, bound hand and foot, into the blast furnaces of a local factory." 81

Hearing of the violence, the Red Guards in the towns of Etaritsa and Tropetz also started begging for their "St. Bartholomew's night massacre." 82 In February and March massacres on the middle class followed in Kiev, Rostov-on-Don and Novotcherkassk. In Rostov-on-Don specifically the children of the middle class were targeted for execution, with mothers turning in a petition to a Bolshevist tribunal that read, "Take our last possessions, our lives, but spare our children." 83 As one spectator to the Rostov-on-Don massacre observed:

"The callousness with which the Red soldiers carried out executions was amazing. Without wasting words, without questions, even without any irritation, the Red Army men took those who were brought to them from the street, stripped them naked, put them to the wall and shot them. Then the bodies were thrown out on the embankment and stable manure thrown over the pools of blood." 84

These episodes all took place before the "Red Terror" officially was instated just after the August 30, 1918 assassination of Petrograd Cheka head Moisei Uritsky, and the attempted assassination that same day of Lenin. It appears that at this point the "Red Terror" became even more systematic and hardened, and certainly started having an inquisition-type method of torture and killing, just as Trotsky had announced from the earliest stages:

"The Chekas resorted to a wide variety of ingenious tortures vying with the methods of the Spanish Inquisition. Certain Chekas specialized in particular lines of torment: the Kharkov Cheka went in for scalping and hand-flaying; some of the Voronezh Cheka's victims were thrust naked into an internally nail-studded barrel and were rolled around in it; others had their forehead branded with a five pointed star, whilst members of the clergy were 'crowned' with barbed wire; the Poltava and Kremenchug Chekas specialised in impaling the clergy (eighteen monks were impaled on a single day);

"Also in Kremenchug, rebelling peasants were buried alive; at Ekaterinoslav victims were crucified or stoned to death, whilst at Tsaritsyn their bones were sawn through; the Cheka of Odessa put officers to death by chaining them to planks and then pushing them very slowly into furnaces, or else by immersion first in a tank of boiling water, then into the cold sea, and then again exposing them to extreme heat; at Armavir, the 'death wreath' was used to apply increasing constriction to victims' heads; in Orel and elsewhere water was poured on naked prisoners in the winter-bound streets until they became living statues of ice; in Kiev the living would be buried for half an hour in a coffin containing a decomposing body;

"Also in Kiev, the imaginative Chinese Cheka detachment amused itself by putting a rat into an iron tube sealed with wire netting at one end, the other end being placed against the victim's body, and the tube heated until the maddened rat, in an effort to escape, gnawed its way into the prisoner's guts." 85

As these systematic torture and execution practices were being implemented, in March 1919, in this 'Thesis on Bourgeois Democracy and proletarian dictatorship, to the Communist International (COMINTERN), Lenin proclaimed:

"Our rule is too mild, quite frequently resembling jam rather than iron."

Lenin conveniently explained that the only middle class ("bourgeoisie") that did not need to be eliminated in Russia were in "[political] administration and construction." For the rest he agreed with the following November 1, 1918 words by Cheka head Martin Latsis in the first issue of Cheka publication 'The Red Terror' magazine:

"We are exterminating the bourgeoisie as a class. [So] during the investigation, do not look for evidence that the accused acted in deed or word against Soviet power. The first questions that you ought to put are: To what class does he belong? What is his origin? What is his education and profession? And it is these questions that ought to determine the fate of the accused. In this lies the significance and essence of the Red Terror." 86

From 1918 to 1922, during the Russian Civil War, there apparently were 37,200 formal executions, mostly of political dissidents. Roughly 200,000 are suspected to have died in less formal manners inside the Russia's early Gulag system. Then there were the deaths on the battlefield, about which surprisingly little has been documented. We only have snippets like the one below:

"Soviet troops occupied Taganrog in the Don Country and, having concluded an armistice with cadets of the local military academy school, they proceeded to executive them most cruelly; a batch of fifty were thrown, bound hand and foot, into the blast furnaces of a local factory. [79] These are just a few of the recorded excesses." 87

Reportedly it were the forces under Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko's who were responsible for this incident. 88 Antonov-Ovseenko was an ally of Trotsky and Lenin, who had led the storming of the Winter Palace during the November 7, 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. He is also the one who suppressed the 1920-1921 Tambov Rebellion of peasants with chemical weapons. The Winter Palace storming famously had no casualties. Similarly, the following report involving Antonov-Ovseenko doesn't sound all that bad:

"December 1917, he telegraphed to Antonov-Ovseenko proposing that fifteen Kharkov capitalists who refused to pay their employees at eight-hour-working-day rates should be sent down a mine for six months of forced labor.[24] In the same month, Lenin urged that forced labour should be one of the punishments applied to offenders..." 89

Somehow, things escalated greatly in a short amount of time.

All is all, the estimate is that half a million people were murdered during the 1918-1922 "Red Terror". Stalin's "Great Purge" of 1936-1938 is estimated to have roughly led to the deaths of an additional million people, including many of the people who implemented the original "Red Terror" and even the "Great Purge" itself.

^^

Mid 1918: Deteriorating relations

March-April 1918: Brief West-Soviet cooperation

In the months after the November 1917 Bolshevik revolution, until the March 3, 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which got Russia out of World War I, the West did try to keep the Soviets in the fight with Germany and the other Central Powers. Even after Brest-Litovsk, there was a little, informal braintrust involving "[General Bernard] Lavergne, the Italian Military Attache General Romei, [Sir Bruce] Lockhart, [Captain E. Francis] Riggs, and [Col. Raymond] Robins", who met on a daily basis at Lockhart's room in Hotel Elite in Moscow, where at least some of the others were staying as well. Lavergne and Lockhart respectively were the French and British chief of missions in Russia, with Robins acting as an unofficial American representative. 90

General Lavergne and others on the French side believed that Bolshevik Russia largely was "indefensible" from the German army. 91 Trotsky, by then Commissar for War under Lenin, agreed, assumed a future confrontation with Germany, and sought to rebuild the Soviet army, having just signed a humiliating peace treaty. A March 5, 1918 cable to the British Foreign Office by Sir Bruce Lockhart largely outlines the positions between Bolshevik Russia and the Allies at the time of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk:

"I had a long interview with Trotsky this morning. [He] could not say friendly relations, because that would be hypocritical on both sides, but suggested some working arrangement such as he has already outlined to me in previous conversations. If, however, the Allies are to allow Japan to enter Siberia, the whole position is hopeless. Every class of Russian will prefer the Germans to the Japanese...

"War between the Bolsheviks and Germany is in any case inevitable. ... If ever the Allies have had a chance in Russia since the revolution, the Germans have given it to them by the exorbitant [i.e. harsh] peace terms they have imposed on Russia [with large territorial concessions]. And now when Germany's aims have been unmasked to the whole world, the Allies are to nullify the benefits of this by allowing the Japanese to enter Siberia. ...

"Japanese intervention in Siberia is likely to do us the most serious and lasting harm after the war, with every class of Russian. I must make the same remarks about our own action if the rumors are true that we are about to occupy Archangel and Murmansk. ... Please show my telegram to the Prime Minister and Lord Milner." 92

One of the issues in the latter half of March 1918 was that Lenin, just after Brest-Litovsk, had agreed that the 40,000 men strong Czech Legion operating inside Ukraine and Russia could leave Russia through Vladivostok, to eventually, from there, make their way to Allied country France. Days later, Trotsky and Stalin Began blocking the trains, trying to get the Czech Legion to disarm, so its men could be used to bolster the Red Army. 93 Eventually the Czech Legion made it out of Russia, but the Bolshevik leaders clearly were quickly aware of their vulnerability towards the Central Powers.

During the first days of the episode with the Czech Legion, Trotsky asked France, Great Britain and the United States for military assistance, through the informal braintrust mentioned above. Little assistance ever was given, but for a few weeks from March to early April 1918 there were discussions of military cooperation between Trotsky and representatives of Entente and Allied countries. Trotsky, for example, asked a relatively enthusiastic Colonel Raymond Robins for military assistance. As Robins subsequently, on March 19, 1918, communicated to U.S. ambassador to Russia, David R. Francis:

"Conference with Trotzki yesterday most satisfactory. He asks for five American army officers to act as inspectors of the organization, drill and equipment of the Soviet Army. Have told [Captain E. Francis] Riggs of this request and he is to see Trotzki today. Trotzki asks further for railroad operating men and equipment. Has Ruggles advised you of Riggs' suggestion that the first contingent of railroad men now waiting in the east be ordered by you to Vologda [in North-West Russia], and has any action been taken by you?" 94

Two weeks later, on April 4, 1918, Robins wired to ambassador Francis that at least some military assistance was being given to the Bolsheviks:

"Munitions that are being evacuated from Archangel are sent to Moscow, the Urals and Siberian towns. Soviet government desires to take up the matter of payment for these munitions, and expects to pay for them in raw materials, but asks for time to organize the economic resources of the country." 95

Already one day after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, about 170 British troops landed in Murmansk. Initially they actually fought alongside Bolshevik troops against local White Army units. This was done because it still was World War I and the Red Army was seen as being better able to withstand any potential future German attack.

During the summer though, the situation changed in various respects. Trotsky may not have been to blame for that. On May 5, 1918, for example, Sir Bruce Lockhart gave Colonel Raymond Robins 6 examples of Trotsky being quite willing to work with the British, and has been quite trustworthy in his promises too. 96 Robins too was very much open to Bolshevik-Allied cooperation, despite the Bolshevik press in particular being hostile.

As time went by though, the situation changed. There was less and less need for any military resistance from Russia on behalf of the Allies towards Germany, as from March 1918 large numbers of American troops started pouring into France, eventually totaling 2 million soldiers. Germany began a large offensive in this period and pulled back a lot of soldiers from Russia to make it succeed. Then, in mid July, Germany lost the Second Battle of the Marne, at which point its fate was sealed. The Bolsheviks would soon start reconquering its East European territories that Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire had taken since the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Undoubtedly as a result of these developments, by July 13, 1918, Trotsky was complaining that British and French troops had moved 700 km / 440 miles south from Murmansk to Sumski-Posad, with "Soviet officials ... being arrested and even sometimes shot." 97 That put them halfway to Petrograd / St. Petersburg and about 40% closer to Moscow, with the British also occupying Archangel on the other side of the White Sea and controlling mall of the coastline in this region. Trotsky had been complaining about this process since at least June 28, 1918. 98 The situation continued to deteriorate though. The Allies started blocking supplies coming in through Murmansk and other coastal towns, and more openly began backing the White Armies against the Bolsheviks.

Japan had entered Russia on its own accord on April 5, 1918, with the argument that there was a danger of German and Austro-Hungarian prisoners of war staging a revolution of their own. Trotsky called it a "monstrous [and] silly invention", criticizing on August 23, 1918 that the Americans and other western Allied countries were supporting this narrative. 99

June 1918: Bolsheviks nationalize Shell and Rothschild oil

One sure sign that the situation between the Allies and the Bolsheviks was deteriorating was that on June 28, 1918, right when Trotsky was complaining about British and French incursions from Murmansk towards Petrograd and Moscow, that his Bolshevik government nationalized all oil firms in the country, taking away huge amounts of property owned in particular at Baku by Shell and the French Rothschilds. 100 Standard Oil was not involved in Russia at this point. 101 Bickering over oil ownership and exports between Shell, Standard Oil and the Soviet government - which quickly realized it needed foreign credit - would last until 1929 and even beyond. 102

Due to the cessation of trade and all the conflict going on, by 1920-1921, even after trade relations were resumed, the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce was all but inactive. All the activity now was going on at the new International Chamber of Commerce, which excluded Russia and the emerging Soviet Union.

Sep. 1918: A U.S. British-French coup against Lenin and Trotsky stopped

As the British and French continued their hostilities towards the Bolshevik regime, on September 2, 1918, Sir Bruce Lockhart and other members of the earlier braintrust were implicated in the so-called "Ambassador's Plot". Lockhart certainly was arrested that day. So was a British ally of his, the spy Sidney Reilly. As the Russian media explained things a day later:

"Today on the 2nd of September was liquidated the conspiracy, which was planned by Anglo-French diplomats, at the head of which was the Chief of the British Mission, Lockhart, the French Consul General Grenard, French general Lavergne and others. The purpose of the conspiracy was to organize the capture of the Council of People's Commissaries and the pronouncement of a military dictatorship in Moscow. This was to be attained by bribing Soviet troops." 103

Subsequently the Russian position on the plot was as follows:

"All this period of conspiracies fomented by agents of the Entente culminated in a huge conspiracy prepared by the English representative, Lockhart, who attempted to corrupt the Lettish Guards of the Kremlin in order to seize Lenin and Trotsky, who, in his opinion, would have to be immediately shot, and to replace the Soviet Government by a military dictatorship in close contact with the Orthodox Church and with all the blackest forces of a most terrible reaction. The unshaken devotion of the valiant Lettish revolutionists saved the Russian people from the calamity of losing Lenin and Trotsky, against whom this kidnapping game was directed, and revealed to the world the crimes which the English representative was secretly preparing." 104

The plot appears to have been quite real, with Lockhart and other looking to recruit the Lettish Guards in capturing and killing Lenin and Trotsky, considering these Bolshevik leaders had given Latvia to the Germans in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. This was to be timed with the arrival of British, French and allied White Russian forces that were moving down from Murmansk and Archangel, towards Petrograd and Moscow, as part of the North Russia intervention. General Frederick Poole played a key role in this. On August 25, 1918 radical French journalist Rene Marchand attended a conspirator's meeting at the American consulate, and promptly spilled the beans to the Bolshevik leadership as well. 105 On August 30 the head of the Cheka in Petrograd, Moisei Uritsky, was assassinated by a poet. That same day Lenin was shot, apparently by lone assassin Fanny Kaplan. Coincidence or not, this is the moment that the Cheka swooped in to arrest the conspirators, which certainly by that time were deemed enemy agents.

Much of this plot had been against the original wishes of Lockhart, but as already documented, by August 1918 the situation with regard to World War I had completely changed. Russia wasn't needed anymore in the fight against the Germans and Austro-Hungarians.

^^

1919-1920: White Army funding

1919-1920: Morgan-allied banks finance the White Army

After the Bolshevik Revolution of early November 1917, General Lavr Kornilov, who tried to overthrow the Bolsheviks and likely prime minister Alexander Kerensky in Petrograd in September 1917, was able to escape prison and fight as a commander of the "White Russian" army against the Bolsheviks until his death in April 1918. Various "White Army" continued to fight the Bolshevik "Red Army", until the latter effectively won in November 1920. White Army forces had been supported though by the West in a variety of ways:

1. From March 1918, after the Bolshevik government had withdrawn from World War I through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, until mid 1920, Britain and France were increasingly enforcing a blockage of Bolshevik supplies to ports in Murmansk and Archangel on the Arctic Sea, Petrograd (St. Petersburg) on the Baltic Sea, and Novorossiysk and Odessa on Black Sea.


2. The British had forces in Murmansk and Archangel from March 1918, eventually totaling about 6,000. They quickly switched loyalty from the Red Army to the White Army and by August 1918 had moved 700 km / 440 miles south in order to control coast lines and train tracks, and apparently also to support a coup that was thwarted on September 2, 1918. France had relatively small deployments of troops in Murmansk and Archangel, in southern Russia and the Black Sea.


3. In and around August 1918 the U.S., U.K., Canada, France, Italy, Japan and China sent troops to Siberia and other parts of North and East Russia to train, equip and help defend the White Armies under Admiral Alexander Kolchak in particular. Known as the Siberian Expedition, it ended in November 1920 for every country but Japan, which pulled back in October 1922, and also already had arrived on April 5, 1918.

Similarly, reports have existed of J.P. Morgan & Co. and other banks having attempted to fund or to have funded the forces of Kolchak in eastern Russia. This information is very hush-hush though. Initially it appears that "even companies with a most long-standing and profitable interest in Siberia (such as the International Harvester Company, part of the Morgan finance group [and ran by Rockefeller-in-laws]) refused point blank to extend credit to the unrecognised and clearly floundering White regime at Omsk [in South-Central Russia, just north of Kazakhstan]." 106 This appears to have changed though when Kolchak revealed he had captured the gold reserves of the Russian government during the battle of Kazan in August 1918. 107 The Russian government under the Czars had moved the gold over there during World War II for safekeeping.

It took some time before this gold was leveraged. A first hint that Wall Street thought money was to be made was that in early 1919 a young lawyer named William Donovan, who in 1916 had worked in Berlin for the Rockefeller Foundation and later would be the founder of the OSS secret service, was visiting the East Russia region:

"Donovan ... after discharge from active duty in early 1919, he left for a year-long trip to Eastern Europe, Japan, and elsewhere in the Far East as a private investigator for [Pilgrims Society member and eventual chairman] Thomas Lamont, president of the New York-based J. P. Morgan banking firm. During his travels he visited Siberia, allegedly at the behest of Secretary of State Robert Lansing [an uncle of the Dulles brothers, who grew up with the Rockefellers], where he observed White Russian forces in their struggle against the Bolsheviks in the Far East. He later submitted a written report to Lansing that was sent to Pres. Woodrow Wilson. After a further six months in Europe, he returned to New York City in 1920 to establish a law practice, counting [the Rockefeller's] Standard Oil of New Jersey and the Morgan and Hambros banks as clients. In 1922 he entered politics..." 108

In May 1919 Kolchack started moving over one-third of the captured gold by train towards the State Bank of Vladivostok, "where by the summer of 1919 no less than eighteen foreign banks, eager for a share in Russian [gold] business, had established branches." 109 A Telegram dating to July 10, 1919 shows the British and French governments supporting the White Russians, with British bank Baring Brothers and American banks Equitable Trust and National City Bank floating a large $50,000,000 loan 110, equal to about $1 billion a century later:

As mentioned before, National City Bank belonged to the Rockefellers. The bank blew up in the early 20th century, because this is where the family stashed its Standard Oil profits. Board members in the period of the Russian financing included men as William Rockefeller, Rockefeller inlaws James Stillman and Cyrus McCormick, Rockefeller-partner Henry Frick, Edward H. Harriman, Harriman-inlaw Cleveland Dodge, J. P. Morgan Jr., Jacob H. Schiff, Robert Lovett of Skull & Bones and Brown Brothers Harriman fame, and Knight of Malta Joseph P. Grace, the father of J. Peter Grace. 111

Equitable Trust too was "controlled by the Rockefellers." 112 Rockefeller in-law and Pilgrims Society vice president and executive Winthrop W. Aldrich became senior legal executive to Equitable in 1919, representing the Rockefeller interests. 113 Aldrich became president of Equitable Trust in December 1929, with the Rockefeller's Chase National Bank taking over Equitable Trust in 1930. At that point Aldrich became president of Chase National Bank 1930-1934 and chairman from 1934 to 1953, after which David Rockefeller mentor John J. McCloy took over as chairman in 1953.

A month later, in August 1919, there was more talk of a 10 million pounds U.S.-U.K. bank loan to the White Army under Admiral Kolchak. This time it was mentioned that gold was used as payment 114:

Despite the U.S. government formally not recognizing the Kolchak "government", it did not object to the money being forwarded 115, in which it once again should be pointed out that secretary of state Robert Lansing was an uncle of the Dulles brothers, who grew up with the Rockefellers:

By mid 1920, after Kolchak already had been captured and executed by the "Reds", seemingly having been caught because he tied himself to a "trainload of precious metal" (i.e. gold) 116, tens of millions of dollars in Kolchak gold had been shipped to the United States from Great Britain alone. 117 The reason for this was that British, French and apparently Swedes could receive Kolchak gold directly, but the Federal Reserve could not. So, as a workaround, the British, French and Swedish national banks received the Kolchak gold, and then paid the U.S. Federal Reserve its cut through their own national gold. This was explained during a 1921 congressional session in the United States:

"The increase in cash reserves is caused ... partly by the increase in gold. ... There may be a great deal coming in from Russia, but it is not coming in direct. ... Some of it [indeed] is thought to be Kolchak gold, coming in through Siberia, but it is none of the Federal Reserve bank's business. [It] will not take gold from Soviet Russia or any which has not the mint mark of a country friendly to the United States. A good deal of the the gold received bears the French mint mark; some of it bears the Swedish mint mark, and some of it bears the British mint mark." 118

Indiana congressman James W. Dunbar picked up on it, when he subsequently asked, "In other words, Russia is sending a great deal of gold to the European countries, which in turn send it over to us?" 119 William Harding, a governor of the Federal Reserve System from August 1914 to August 1922, replied, "To pay for this stuff bought in this country or to create dollar exchange." 120

There was some criticism at the time that maybe Kolchak shouldn't be allowed to sell Russia's gold which belonged to the Russian government and people 121, but in the end, in 1919 and 1920, Morgan, Rockefeller and other major banks in the West accepted Kolchak's captured gold to pay for war supplies for the White Russian troops. As the documents above show, secretary of state Robert Lansing purposely looked the other way. And president Woodrow Wilson, once again, was accused of doing the same, also of having allowed the Morgan bank to not just (almost exclusively) extend loans to Great Britain and France during World War I, but also to the Russians:

"In 1914, when Russia joined Britain and France in a war against Germany, President Wilson sought to keep the American government carefully neutral. But he did nothing to stop the House of Morgan from floating loans of billions to the British and Russians for purchasing American war supplies. ...

"Wilson was also criticized for failing to protest when the French, British, and Japanese invading Siberia to support the White Russian forces. [Eventually] about nine thousand American troops were dispatched to Vladivostok. Japan poured in seventy-three thousand men. Together they took over the railway line as far inland as Lake Baikal. Meanwhile the House of Morgan supplied funds to White [Army forces head] Adm. Alexander Kolchak for weapons, ammunition, locomotives, and other materiel..." 122

The "White Terror": mass murdering Jews and anti-Czarists

Allied support for the White Armies from 1918 was part of period that both the White Army and the Red Army engaged in their own terrorism: the so-called "White Terror" versus "Red Terror". The "Red Terror" we discussed earlier. Quite often scholars try to determine who started first, but the fact is that there really was no reason to resort to the amount of violence in question, no matter what the other side did. Most violence, on both sides, seems to have come down to some sort of demonically-inspired vengefulness. In the end, the violence only led to the alienation of the people.

The "White Terror", carried out by White Army forces mostly under Admiral Alexander Kolchak, is generally estimated to have made less casualties, but was no less brutal than its "Red" counterpart:

"No doubt a White colonel spoke not only for himself when he [said] "two eyes for one, and all teeth for one." [54] Eventually even General Wrangel saw the White Guards wielding "the cruel sword of vengeance" rather than bringing "pardon and peace." [55] Around mid-January 1918 in Taganrog, a small port about 45 miles west of Rostov, White forces "blinded and mutilated" a group of allegedly "Bolshevik factory workers .. before burying them alive."[56] When retaking the town, Antonov-Ovseenko's Red Guards more than matched this ferocity [throwing] a batch of fifty [military cadets], bound hand and foot, into the blast furnaces of a local factory." [57]" 123

A lot of the genocidal violence of White Armies was perpetrated against Jews, who generally were all considered Bolshevik agents by White Army commanders. This was due to many Bolshevik leaders being Jewish. Cossacks generally were considered to be the most violent:

"Fifteen-year-old Sigalov had to watch her parents slashed with sabers, and then she was raped many times in front of her dying parents, and only after that her parents were murdered, while she was left to suffer. About two hundred Jewish women were locked in the local brewery on the riverbank and raped continuously. Some young women escaped by jumping into the river. ...

Cossacks ... harbored a traditionally negative image of Jews as greedy and cunning enemies of Christian people. ... For Cossacks, and for the officers as well, violent mass rape and torture of the Jews became a source of satisfaction and entertainment, which had nothing to do with sexual intercourse as such, but everything with the public celebration of power that is free of restrictions. ... Another witness ... adds that “Chechens” were the worst -- they murdered “in a wink.” ... Mass rape of Jewish women combined with elaborate torture provoked in the pogrom perpetrators an ever-growing hunger for greater punishment. ...

The local population joined in with the plundering [of the Jews] enthusiastically, following in the Cossacks’ footsteps, and removed even roofs from some houses. The Jewish community of Korsun could barely recover before the White Army retreated in December 1919..." 124

The White Army consisted of many separate armies, which varied to some degree in the amount of human rights abuses they perpetrated. A partial list of commanders and reported atrocities reads as follows:

• Admiral Alexander Kolchak: Supreme ruler of the White Armies 1918-1920. Bits and pieces can be found about Kolchak's violence. For example, how "in March 1919 Admiral Kolchak ordered one of his generals "to follow the example of the Japanese who, in the Amur region, had exterminated the local population."" There were reports of Kolchak's "prison torture-chambers". 125 General William Graves, head of the U.S. troops in Siberia, later wrote: "Reports were being received from all sections of Eastern Siberia where American troops were stationed, of the killing and whipping of men, women, and children. Reports of similar outrages [came] from peasant villages. ... The Kolchak adherents [were the ones] who committed these atrocities." 126


• General Grigory Semyonov: By the U.S. State Department described as a Napoleon-obsessed "dictator for the Chita district", who did not recognize Admiral Kolchak's authority, "robs the Chita banks", and at the same time is "dominated to a large extent by his mistress, upon whom he spends hundreds of thousands of roubles." 127 Additionally described as "one of the group of Cossacks, such as Kalmikoff, Dutoff, and Annenkoff, who, through wholesale robbery, rape, murder and torture of the peasant population of Siberia, drove that great majority unwillingly into the arms of the Soviet leaders. In other words, Semenoff was creating Bolshevism while ostensibly opposing it. Investigations by the American Expeditionary Forces in Siberia indicated that his bands had killed over 30,000 peasants without trial in one year." 128 In addition, "There was no time during the years that Semenoff was in Chita that he could have maintained himself in power without the physical presence of Japanese troops." 129 Despite their continuous disagreements, Kolchak, after his own forces were on the retreat appointed Semyonov his successor.


• General Ivan Kalmikoff: "In the whole of Siberia, there was only one worse criminal than Semeonoff and that was Kalmikoff." 130 Described by the U.S. State Department as a general who "murdered, robbed and executed without trial" the civil population of Siberia to such an extent that the U.S. forces under General Graves, with help from the Japanese, would "hunt him down and turn him over to the civil authorities in Vladivostok for trial" if he did not cease these activities. 131 The Japanese appear to have been quite fond of him though. As General Graves explained: "Semeonoff and Kalmikoff soldiers, under the protection of Japanese troops, were roaming the country like wild animals, killing and robbing the people, and these murders could have been stopped any day Japan wished. ... There were horrible murders committed, but they were not committed by the Bolsheviks as the world believes. I am well on the side of safety when I say that the anti-Bolsheviks killed one hundred people in Eastern Siberia, to every one killed by the Bolsheviks. It was my judgement when in Siberia, and is now, that Japan always hoped, by fostering these murderers, that the United States would become disgusted with conditions, withdraw her troops and request Japan to go in and clean up the situation." 132


• General Ivanoff-Rinoff: Served under Admiral Kolchak in Siberia. Described as "absolutely unscrupulous and to be dominated completely by the Japanese." 133 Gen Graves wrote, "Ivanoff-Rinoff's troops were beating women as well as men and torturing and killing men ... and yet Kolchak took Ivanoff-Rinoff to Omsk and promoted him." 134


• General Anton Deniken: Repeatedly accused of his men having run deadly pogroms on Jews, both in and around Kiev and around Moscow in late 1919. Many thousands of Jews reportedly were raped, tortured and killed, although it appears Cossacks as Shkuro were the most violent.


• General Andrei Shkuro: Ran the Cossack Wolf Division, with its wolf on black background emblem. Had his men rob, rape and murder, targeting Jews in particular. Like other White Army commander, he stated, "Jews will not receive any mercy because they are all Bolsheviks." 135 Eventually a Nazi collaborator, handed to the Soviets by the Allies, and hanged.


• General Markevich: Head of Shkuro’s headquarters. Told a Jewish emissary who tried to stop a rape, torture and murder-filled pogrom: "How can I forget that a Jewish Commissar in Rostov killed my mother and my sister? My soldiers are embittered against Communists, and all the Communists are Jewish. We can't allow a Jewish kingdom in Russia. ... The first four or five days my boys need to unwind [by raping your young daughters]. There is nothing to be done about that. My Cossacks are good fighters but also good looters. If you just killed Trotsky all that would end." 136


• General Pyotr Krasnov: Another White military commander accused of committing deadly pogroms. His men reportedly killed between 25,000 and 40,000 people.


• General Boris Annenkov: Annekov's troops reportedly killed 2,000 to 3,000 Jews in Yekaterinburg in July 1919. Known to have hacked people to death. There were quite a few Afghans, Uyghurs, and Chinese among his troops.

Despite the Bolsheviks being violent murderers themselves and not being popular outside the big cities, the extreme violence perpetrated by White Army commanders, combined with a temporary policy of "forgiveness" policy by the Bolsheviks, apparently led to many ordinary people taking the side of the Bolsheviks, and the White Armies certain defeat. As secretary of state Robert Lansing wrote to President Woodrow Wilson on December 23, 1919:

"The truth of the matter is the simple fact that the Kolchak Government has utterly collapsed; the armies of the Bolsheviki have advanced into Eastern Siberia, where they are reported to be acting with moderation. The people seem to prefer them to the officers of the Kolchak regime. Further, the Bolshevik army is approaching the region where our soldiers are, and contact with them will lead to open hostilities and to many complications. In other words, if we do not withdraw we shall have to wage war against the Bolsheviki." 137

At least western banks had a good portion of the Kolchak gold, after his armies collapsed.

^^

1926-: American-Russian Chamber: reboot

1926-: Big business of the ARCC starts building up Stalin's Russia

Stalin was the ruler of the Soviet Union from 1924, upon Lenin's death, until his own death in 1953. Despite U.S. relations with newly communist Russia not being particularly ideal, over the course of the early to mid 1920s trade between the United States and Russia did increase considerably. As a result, in 1926, the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce was reinstated by the same business interests. These included Harriman and Chase National Bank. 138

The American-Russian Chamber of Commerce started operating as any other big business lobby. A few examples:

• In 1927 it attempted to lobby the U.S. government to allow Russia to sell gold in the United States. 139


• Stalin's first Five-Year Plan, accepted in 1928, in operation from 1929 to 1933, and focused on the rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union, was heavily based on member corporations of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce that agreed to go over to the Soviet Union and help in the creation of the country's industrial basis. Examples include:
  
  
  • Austin Company designed and build over 600 Soviet power plants.
  • General Electric and Westinghouse did the electrical engineering for countless Soviet industrial plants.
  • Freyn Engineering and and Arthur G. McKee build Russia's newest and best steel mills.
  • Stuart, James & Cook improved Soviet Russia's coal industry.
  • Albert Kahn Company build the Stalingrad Tractor Company. 140


• In the summer of 1929 a nearly 100-man delegation of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce made a 6,000 mile luxury train trip through the Soviet Union, on the way meeting all kinds of local government, trade and industrial representatives. Stalin saw this trip as part of his initial Five-Year Plan. 141
  
  This same year the Russian government signed a first important deal with Shell, giving Russia the ability to export its oil to Great Britain. Due to the rapid growth of its own domestic industries, Russia's oil exports to the international markets started drying up in the 1930s. 142


• In May 1930 Amtorg, the sole Soviet purchasing agency in the United States and a member company of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, came under congressional investigation for spreading propaganda and running spy operations in United States. Part of the information was based on dissenting Soviet diplomat Gregory Bessedovsy. In the same period similar reports of Amtorg- and other Soviet-tied trade deceptions emerged from places ranging from Britain and Australia to Buenos Aires, Argentina. 143 Questions continued and it appears that into the 1930s and 1940s Amtorg continued as a major center for Soviet industrial espionage in the United States. One Ford-Amtorg foreman in Russia, who saw the Russians steal anything from Ford Motors blueprints and machine parts, had Russian managers, employees and spies on both sides of the Atlantic admit things to him as:
  
  
  "We will always be here, because your country is ruled by big business, and big business wants our trade."
  
  
  "What we take free with every dollar we pay the Americans we would never get at any price in England, with Scotland Yard hanging onto our tails." 144
  
  Despite the writing on the wall, the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce lobbied government officials to make statements about Amtorg to put it in a favorable light, allowing the company to continue to operate in the United States. 145


• When in July 1930 the U.S. government instated a ban on the import of Soviet pulpwood that had been harvested with the use of slave labor, the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce successfully lobbied President Herbert Hoover, an old founding member of the ICC; and robber baron-turned-treasury secretary Andrew Mellon, an participant in ICC meetings, to undo it. 146

On November 16, 1933, new U.S. president Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) reopened diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, this after discussions in Washington D.C. with the Soviet commissar for foreign relations, Maxim Litvinoff. These relations had been broken off since the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917.

Before Litvinoff left to return to the Soviet Union, he was given a reception at the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce in New York City, this on November 24, 1933. A huge amount of big business - many of them tied in with the Pilgrims Society and Council on Foreign Relations - gathered to celebrate the occasion. Interests represented included J. P. Morgan & Co., the Rockefeller-controlled National City Bank and Chase Manhattan Bank, the Dupont-tied General Motors, Ford Motors, Owen D. Young of General Electric and the ICC, Averell Harriman of the ICC, who also sat on the board of trustees; etc.

The words spoken at the gathering are absolutely fascinating and once again seem to reveal that big business loves having a pair of blinders on in order to continue to do business in whatever country it can, even Stalin's Russia. The words of American-Russian Chamber of Commerce president Hugh L. Cooper at the gathering were as follows:

"Mr. Josef Stalin, a man whose name will go down in history as one of the foremost leaders of all times. While I may honestly disagree in some respects with political and social philosophy, I say to you here and now that I wholeheartedly admire his unselfish, untiring efforts to raise the standards of living of the 160,000,000 people within the confines of the Soviet Union.

"The Soviet Union [where] there exists natural resources far greater in value than the known natural resources of the balance of Europe. ...

"President Roosevelt and Foreign affairs commissar Maxim Litvinoff (real name: Meir Henoch Wallach and born in a Jewish banking family) have just laid an American-Soviet foundation stone of friendship ... as a vital aid in the establishment of world peace." 147

The last sentence here immediately gives away of course the true motives for the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce's rosy picture of the Stalin regime. The subsequent speech of "expert witness" Colonel Raymond Robins arguably is even more questionable:

"I revisited Russia of the Soviets in the spring of this year... Having seen the first Soviet May Day demonstration on the Red Square of Moscow ... in 1918 I witnessed the fifteenth demonstration on last May Day 1933. ...

"I could find nowhere anyone who knew of or said he believed in any organized resistance against the Soviet Government throughout the Russian land. ... The penal system of the Soviets has abolished all punitive elements. The whole method of detention is educational and correctional." 148

The bankers and businessmen on the dais and board of trustees loved hearing these reassuring words, of course. It's unfortunate though that 2.5 years after the opening of diplomatic relations and these speeches, Stalin's "Great Purge" went into effect, in which about a million suspected dissidents were torture-interrogated and murdered. It wasn't the first purge by Stalin either. Just one victim of these endless purges in 1938 was part of the ranks of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce: Saul Bron, the Jewish chairman of the Amtorg Trading Corporation in New York City from 1927 until controversy erupted about the firm in 1930. The extra-cirricular rape and murder activities of Stalin's secret police chief, Lavrentiy Beria, might be a footnote compared with the "Great Purge" deaths, but certainly a very telling one.

What should definitely be mentioned is that Colonel Raymond Robins, the last-cited speaker here in November 1933 and who was praising Stalin, was a member of the "Red Cross relief mission" that was active in Russia from July 1917 to June 1918, becoming the head of it three months in. The relief mission has always been controversial, because it was backed by Wall Street, with Robins and others continually negotiating with the new government leaders, from Alexander Kerensky initially to Lenin and Trotsky later on in 1917. For some reason Colonel Robins always has always been quite comfortable discussing communist alliances.

Cold War: Dartmouth, US-USSR Trade and Economic Council, Rockefeller, Kissinger

We could dig deeper into the transfer of western technology to the Soviet Union, but this is as far as the author takes it. Various authors besides Antony Sutton have discussed it, primarily it appears after the conservative Ronald Reagan entered office. Readers can always consult the following works for more details:

• 1973, Antony Sutton (Hoover Institution), 'Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development: 1945 to 1965; Third volume of a three-volume series' (PDF).


• Jan. 1981, University of Southern California Ph.D. dissertation of (PDF)


• April 1981, RAND Corporation report, prepared for DARPA, 'Selling the Russians the Rope: Soviet Technology Policy and U.S. Export Controls'


• April 1982, 'Soviet Acquisition of Western Technology'.

In the end, it strongly appears that the Soviet Union at least became as powerful as it was due to trade with western multinationals, or theft from them. Privatized trade and diplomatic ties continued during the Cold War. To illustrate, in 1960 the Dartmouth Conference - annual clandestine meetings between U.S. and Russian businessmen and diplomats - was founded. David Rockefeller was the most important player in this network, visiting continually between 1962 and 1988. Henry Kissinger protege Harold Saunders visited between 1981 and 2010. In 1973 David Rockefeller, George Shultz and others co-founded the U.S.-USSR Trade and Economic Council. Other such NGOs were founded as the Cold War came to end.

In that sense it may not be very surprising that Antony Sutton's work on the transfer of western technology to the Soviet Union was suppressed in the 1970s by largely unseen forces, also when testifying to Republican members of congress. 149 He has mentioned Robert McNamara, a top globalist with deep Rockefeller ties, as among those officials who personally overruled subordinates to allow the transfer of high tech U.S. technology to Russia 150, derivatives subsequently popping up on the side of the North Vietnamese. Robert Mcnamara and people as Henry Kissinger, George Shultz and David Rockefeller all were members of anything from the Pilgrims Society to the Trilateral Commission, and that clearly always is the network where one has to look to find answers.

^Conclusions

In the end this article is not just about identifying the globalist forces behind the Bolshevik Revolution and its opponents, but also to get a better sense of what the globalist bankers were up to in the early, pre-World War II period. Traditionally with the robber barons, authors only look at the United States. But these bankers really were active all over the world. The article on the International Chamber of Commerce, for example, already reveals a lot about early ties of the Rockefellers, Morgans and Kuhn, Loeb & Co. (Schiff, Warburg) to pre-World War I and pre-World War II Europe and Japan. Now we have seen them active in Russia, actually sponsoring both Bolshevik (the Jewish bankers) and anti-Bolshevik (the non-Jewish bankers) forces. It's just another piece of globalist history that has been put in place with this article.

^Notes

1. 1919, John Spargo (member Socialist Party of America), 'Bolshevism', p. 254.
2. 1919, Foreign Office of Great Britain, 'A Collection of Reports on Bolshevism in Russia', p. 99: "(Speech by Zinoviev: reported in the "Northern Commune.", September 19, [1918] No. 109."
3. 1971, Gen. William S. Graves, 'America's Siberian Adventure, 1918–1920', p. 108.
4. April 17, 1922, U.S. Congress: Senate, Committee on Education and Labor, 'The Deportation of Gregorii Semenov', p. 52. Words of W. W. Husband, commissioner general of immigration.
5. Sep. 8, 2020 YouTube upload by 'The Romanov Royal Martyrs', 'Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution | An Interview with Professor Anthony C. Sutton' (1987 interview).
   youtube.com/watch?v=pd9B3cilgHY
6. Feb. 10, 2020 YouTube upload by 'Jean Pimenta', 'Antony Sutton - Wall Street and International Communism' (1980 interview by Stanley Monteith).
   youtube.com/watch?v=m3O6OXOFXbg
7. See two notes back.
8. See 2 notes back, from 3:30.
9. Jan.-March 1914, U.S. Department of Commerce, 'Daily Consular and Trade Reports', p. 443.
10. 1999, James K. Libbey, 'Russian-American Economic Relations, 1763-1999', p. 219.
11. Sep. or Oct. 1918, New York Chamber of Commerce's Monthly Bulletin, 'Executive Committee Approves an American Policy for Russia': "At a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Chamber a report outlining an American policy for Russia, was adopted. This report was prepared originally by the Board of Directors of the American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, which is composed of the following:
    [Pilgrims: 5 of 21 (24%); CFR: 6 of 21 (29%). Combined: 9 of 21: 43%.] - F. W. ALLEN, Lee, Higginson & Co .;
    - S. R. BERTRON [soon chair; founding life-long Pilgrim; founding CFR '21-], Bertron, Griscom & Co.
    - JOHN BOLINGER, Vice-President National Shawmut Bank, Boston;
    - C. H. Boynton [Pilgrim '07-'14; not on a '03 or '20 list; never CFR];
    - WM. Butterworth [founding member CFR '21-], President Deer & Co., Moline Ill.;
    - C. P. Coleman, President Worthington Pump & Machine Co.;
    - W. F. DIXON , Director Russian Singer Sewing Machine Co .;
    - HAYDEN B. HARRIS, Vice- President American Foreign Banking corp.;
    - R. G. HUTCHINS , Vice-President National Bank of Commerce;
    - DARWIN P. KINGSLEY [Pilgrims anno '14-'27], President New York Life Insurance Co.;
    - J. F. LUCEY , President Lucey Mfg . Co .;
    - SAMUEL MCROBERTS [founding member CFR '21-], Executive Manager National City Bank;
    - C. M. MUCHNIC, Vice-President American Locomotive Sales Co.;
    - M. [Maurice] A. OUDIN [founding member CFR '21-], Manager Foreign Dept. General Electric Co.;
    - Franklin Remington [Pilgrims anno '24-'37; never CFR], President Foundation Co.;
    - C. H. Sabin [Pilgrims anno '14-'27; founding member CFR '21-], President Guaranty Trust Co.;
    - Charles H. Sargent, Jr., Kidder, Peabody & Co.;
    - D. G. WING, President First National Bank of Boston;
    - W. [William] H. WOODIN [founding member CFR '21-], President American Car & Foundry Co.;
    - F. M. CORSE, Chairman of the Executive Committee;
    - E. C. PORTER, Executive Secretary.
    The American-Russian Chamber approved the reports of its Board on September 15, 1918, and subsequently asked the New York Chamber to give it consideration."
12. See ISGP's Pilgrims Society article for details and sources.
13. 1949, The American Slavic and East European Review, p. 98 (Google Books).
14. Ibid., pp. 96-97: "The major portion of private loans to the Russian government, however, were arranged by a syndicate of public and private bankers during 1916. In his summary study of American Foreign Investments, printed in 1926, Robert Dunn lists these private loans as follows...
    [The first loan] was floated by the National City Bank of New York, the Guarantee Trust Company, J. P. Morgan and Company, Kidder, Peabody and Company, and Lee, Higginson and Company. It was to run for three years, and to be spent in the United States. ...
    The second loan ... was also for $50,000,000 on similar terms. It was offered by the National City Bank; the Guarantee Trust; J. P. Morgan and Company [etc.]."
15. Ibid., p. 98.
16. 1960, David William Scott (University of Wisconsin - Madison), 'The American Russian Chamber of Commerce and American Russian Trade, 1916 to 1935', p. 64.
17. Ibid.
18. Aug. 11, 1917, The Commercial and Financial Chronicle / The Chronicle (weekly publication), p. 571: "The American Commission to Russia, headed by Elihu Root, arrived safely [back] at a Pacific port on Aug. 3. [Named the] Root Commission... Other members of the American Commission to Russia [include] Cyrus H. McCormick, of Illinois, President of the International Harvester Company; Charles R. Crane, of Illinois, manufacturer and businessman; John R. Mott, of New York, General Secretary of the International Committee of the Y. M. C. A.; Samuel R. Bertron, of New York, of the investment banking firm of Bertron, Griscom & Co., and Rear Admiral James H. Glennon..."
19. Ibid.
20. 1933, Vol. 15, Part 3, p. 62, Der Spiegel. Google Books.; Also: 1956, George F. Kennan (while at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton; cousin of George Kennan (1845-1924), who supported Tsar critic Catherine Breshkovsky from the 1880s), 'Soviet-American Relations, 1917-1920; Russia Leaves the War', p. 25.
21. See ISGP's Pilgrims Society article for details and sources.
22. 1943 printed, The National Archives, 'Handbook of Federal World War Agencies and Their Records, 1917-1921', p. 23: "American National Red Cross War Council.--A body of seven members appointed by President Wilson on May 10, 1917. Henry P. Davison served as Chairman. [It had] full power over all Red Cross matters arising out of the war."
23. 1917, American National Red Cross War Council, 'The Work of the American Red cross', p. 24: "American National Red Cross War council. The officials who serve without salary are as follows: WAR COUNCIL:
    - HENRY P. DAVISON [Pilgrim '08-; CFR '26-; part of the secret 1910 Jekyll Island Club meeting to establish the Federal Reserve], of New York . Of J. P. Morgan & Co., Chairman of the Red Cross War Council .
    - CHARLES D. NORTON part of the secret 1910 Jekyll Island Club meeting to establish the Federal Reserve, of New  York. First Vice-President of the First National Bank of New York Morgan-dominated; Member of the Red Cross War Council.
    - MAJOR GRAYSON M.-P. MURPHY [CFR '26-; son was a Pilgrim], of New York . Vice-President of the Guaranty Trust Company of New York Morgan-dominated; Red Cross Commissioner to Europe and member of the Red Cross War Council.
    - JOHN D. RYAN, of Butte, Montana. President of the Anaconda Copper Company; member of the Red Cross War Council.
    - CORNELIUS N. BLISS, JR., of New York. Member of the firm of Bliss, Fabyan & Company, of New York; member of the Red Cross War Council.
    - ELIOT WADSWORTH [CFR '33-; ICC U.S. national committee anno '38], of Boston. Formerly of the engineering firm of Stone & Webster, of Boston; Vice-Chairman of the Central Committee of the American Red Cross and ex-officio member of the Red Cross War Council.
    - GEORGE B. CASE, of New York, member of the law, firm of White & Case, of New York; legal adviser to the Red Cross war council.
    - Martin Egan [CFR '26-], of New York. Member of the staff of J. P. Morgan & Company... Assistant to [chairman] Mr. H. P. Davison.
    - Ivy L. Lee [Pilgrim at least '14-; PR man for the Rockefellers since the 1914 Ludlow Massacre; CFR '26-], of New York. Assistant to the Chairman of the Red Cross War Council.
    - JOSEPH M. HARTFIELD, of New York. Member of the law firm of White & Case, of New York; Counsel to the War Council.
    - JOSEPH R. HAMLEN, of Little Rock, Ark. Vice-President of the J. H. Hamlen & Son ( Inc. ) , of Portland , Me . , New York , and Little Rock , Ark .; assistant to the vice chairman of the American Red Cross."
24. 1956, George F. Kennan (while at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton; cousin of George Kennan (1845-1924), who supported Tsar critic Catherine Breshkovsky from the 1880s), 'Soviet-American Relations, 1917-1920; Russia Leaves the War', p. 54: "The expenses of the mission, even including the military uniforms of its members, were paid for out of Thompson's personal pocket..."
25. 1917-1918 annual report, American National Red Cross, p. 123.
26. 1974, Anthony Hocking, 'Oppenheimer and Son', pp. 78-79, 87, 90, 244-245: " [Hoover] listened carefully to all that Ernest outlined. ... Hoover was able to give Ernest his answer on the spot. Yes, he could help. With Honnold he was arranging American participation in the venture through the Newmont Mining Corporation of New York, its bankers J. P. Morgan and Company, and Morgan's London offshoot the merchant bankers Morgan Grenfell.
    So it was all aranged. Ernest could hardly contain his excitement. Immediately he was on the wire to Honnold in American, to chase negotiations on their way and bring the mining house into being as soon as possible. Their first task was to decide on a board of directors. ...
    Early in 1919 Ernest was in Europe again, as it happened at the time of the great Peace Conference at Versailles. All the world's powers but the revolutionary Soviet of Russia had been invited to attend - one of the greatest summit conferences the world had known, though it was obvious its chief object was to wreak vengeance on the already humbled Germans. Smuts would be attending as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, and asked Ernest if he was interested in accompanying him as an observer.
    The memory of that great conference was to remain with Ernest all his life , as it did with everyone who was present . It was dominated by Wilson of America , Lloyd George of Britain and Clemenceau of France... Botha and Smuts [were] stating South Africa's view; and besides them, two of their political opponents, General Hertzog and D F Malan , who had come to put the case of the die - hard Afrikaners for whom the South African War had never really finished and would continue until the hated British were chased from South Africa's shores ...
    The government eventually gave its formal approval to the arrangement in February, 1920. Before that happened, however, Louis Botha had died... He was succeeded by Smuts as everyone epected, who soon called a general election. To ensure his position against the rising power of Hertzog and his Afrikaner Nationalists , Smuts formed a coalition with what had been the Opposition. But before the election came off Ernest and May were on their way to the United States to confront the J. P. Morgan and Newmont Mining directors in person. The Anglo American needed yet more funds, and this would be the best way to raise them. A trip from South Africa to the United States in those days was a major adventure - a journey almost halfway round the world . Ernest and May made their preparations in great excitement : they would be away three months or more ...
    Suddenly the Nationalists discovered a new threat. A group of businessmen had created a secret fund of no less than 1,000,000 pounds which would be used in a bid to overthrow the government: and the man behind it all was 'the honourable mining magnate on that side of the House' - of course, Harry. ' If it comes to a stand-up fight you can come with your money ' , challenged one of the Nationalists . ' We have extended the hand of friendship to the English - speaking people and it has been rejected . ' The London Economist carried an amusing piece about the fuss which resulted : " The South African Nationalists play a complicated game of politics with only three well - thumbed cards . These are the black bogey , the British connection , and " Hoggenheimer " . This three - card trick has , however , had surprising successes . It put the late General Hertzog into power in 1924 and kept a Nationalist Government going from that date until 1933 ; and it put the Nationalists under Dr. Malan back into power three years ago , just as if there had been no fusion, no war and no General Smuts . ' The black bogey and the British connection are never in discard , but it is sometimes advisable to hold them in reserve for a time . Then it becomes the turn of " Hoggenheimer " . The name is the creation of a brilliant cartoonist called Boonzaaier , who in the mid - twenties attached it to a paunchy , cigar - smoking capitalist , obviously purloined from the Labour Press . " Hoggenheimer " represented " money , which in South Africa has traditionally meant the gold and diamond mines . It is no accident that " Hoggenheimer " rhymes with Oppenheimer . The first hint that " Hoggenheimer " was about to reappear on the political stage came some months ago in the form of some ambiguous phrases from the Nationalist Minister of Economic Affairs , Mr Eric Louw , an indefatigable smeller out of United Party plots and stratesman on Mond gems ." ...
    The real eruption came in Parliament, when Dr J H Loock, a former Smuts supporter who had joined the Nationalists, darkly described a mysterious dinner (held either in Johannesburg or in Cape Town: Nationalist versions differ) at which sinister mining magnates decided to contribute £ 1 000 000 ( " What is a million to them ?", asked Dr. Loock scornfully) towards the overthrow of the Nationalist Government. Dr. Loock explained that one part of the plot was to buy over "outstanding Afrikaner intellectual", and added modestly that he himself had been offered a good slice of the 1,000,000 pounds but had rejected it with contempt."
27. Jan. 4, 1911, New York Times, 'Wm. T. Wardwell Dies Suddenly; Ex-Treasurer of Standard Oil Co.': "... for many years Treasurer of the Standard Oil... He leaves a widow and two children—Allen Wardwell of 157 East Thirty..."
28. 1935, Hermann Hagedorn (Harvard graduate and Harvard English teacher who became friends with President Teddy Roosevelt), 'The Magnate: William Boyce Thompson and His Times (1869-1930)', pp. 205, 207.
29. 1969, Albert Rhys Williams (labor organizer and journalist who participated in the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution), 'Journey into Revolution petrograd, 1917-1918', p. 24: "General Neuslakonsky in charge of propaganda for the Army, established "a hundred or more newspapers," financed news bureaus, and purchased a printing plant. Speakers were sent to barracks and villages, and "Everywhere...""
30. Nov. 2, 1918, The Survey ('Volume XLI: October, 1918 - March, 1919', p. 125): "[Photo:] Comrades in the battle for Russian freedom: A group of American Red Cross Commissioners with members of the Kerensky government's Commission on Civic Education, taken in Petrograd in September, 1917: From left to right, sitting: Col. William Boyce Thompson, Mr. Lazaroff for years the principal medium between the revolutionary party and political exiles; Mme. Catherine Breshkovsky, now reported dead. Standing: Nicholas Basil Tchaikovsky, lately head of the Government of the North which, according to the most recent dispatches, has fallen, and often referred to as the '"grandfather" of the revolution; Maj. Frederick M. Corse, Victor Soskice, a son of Dr. David Soskice, for many years editor of Free Russia in London and Kerensky's secretary up to the time of his fall; Col. Raymond Robins..."
31. Ibid.
32. 2019, Chelsea C. Gibson, (State University of New York), 'Russia's Martyr-heroines: Women, Violence, and the American Campaign for a Free Russia, 1878-1920', p. 234.
33. 1956, George F. Kennan (while at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton; cousin of George Kennan (1845-1924), who supported Tsar critic Catherine Breshkovsky from the 1880s), 'Soviet-American Relations, 1917-1920; Russia Leaves the War', pp. 56-57: "Kerensky himself was a Social-Revolutionary of sorts; and at his suggestion, Thompson was put into touch with Madame Breshkovskaya [Breshkovsky], the "Little Grandmother of the Revolution," who had only recently been released from a Tsarist prison by the February Revolu- tion, and who was then living in Petrograd and participating again in party and public life. Madame Breshkovskaya and her friends were, it is true, in favor of collaboration with the Allies and continuation of the war effort. But their main concern was naturally to combat the growing influence of the Bolsheviki and to keep Kerensky in power. For all of this they needed funds, and Thompson immediately undertook to procure them. ...
    After a brief and unsuccessful attempt to get money for this purpose from the United States government, Thompson, an impatient man accustomed to doing things in a big way, drew on his personal account with J. P. Morgan and Company for a cool $1 million and set out to finance some of his S-R friends, whose influence he thought would be useful to the restoration of military morale. In the cynical and sophisticated political circles of the Russian capital, these donations, which soon became the subject of general gossip, were viewed with considerable amusement: the subvention of the Social-Revolutionary party by the financial barons of Wall Street. ...
    The Pravda, on December 7, attacked Madame Breshkovskaya [Breshkovsky] bitterly over Thompson's donations, charging that this was "not Revolution but Prostitution." The reasons for this attack were strictly domestic-political. The "Wall Street" tag happened to come in handy."
34. Ibid., p. 58.
35. Ibid., pp. 56-57.
36. See ISGP's Pilgrims Society article for details and sources.
37. 1935, Hermann Hagedorn (Harvard graduate and Harvard English teacher who became friends with President Teddy Roosevelt), 'The Magnate: William Boyce Thompson and His Times (1869-1930)', p. 205.
38. 1956, George F. Kennan (while at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton; cousin of George Kennan (1845-1924), who supported Tsar critic Catherine Breshkovsky from the 1880s), 'Soviet-American Relations, 1917-1920; Russia Leaves the War', p. 59.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid.: "President Wilson ... was highly displeased on learning of Thompson's disbursements [which he] viewed as a reckless and flamboyant use of funds, and stored the incident away in his secretive but infinitely retentive memory. ... Thompson's action no doubt appeared to him as an unjustified and disrespectful anticipation of the presidential decision."
41. Ibid., pp. 20, 22
42. Ibid., p. 55.
43. 1937, Richard Lewinsohn, 'The Profits of War Through the Ages', p. 103 (book featured in the Journal of Political Economy in Feb. 1938): "Banking business with the Allies were far from negligible. The 500 million dollar loan contracted in autumn 1915 brought to the group of bankers, at whose head Morgan was, a net profit of 9 million dollars...
    [p. 219:] J. P. Morgan, who had come personally to Europe, did not want to act for the French Government till France and England were in complete agreement with one another on the question of financing their purchases. An understanding on this question was come to on April 30, 1915, and a few weeks later Morgan was officially appointed agent of the French Government."
44. *) Ibid. Thomas W. Lamont, John W. Davis and Dwight Morrow were Morgan partners attending Versailles.
    *) 1997, Charles R. Geisst, 'Wall Street: A History', p. 148: "Thomas Lamont ... became Wilson's most trusted adviser during the Versailles peace conference that began in 1919. ... Wilson valued his counsel more than that of the other Morgan men who were plentiful at the conference. Bernard Baruch jealously remarked that there were so many Morgan men at the conference that it was apparent they were indeed running the show."
45. 1956, George F. Kennan (while at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton; cousin of George Kennan (1845-1924), who supported Tsar critic Catherine Breshkovsky from the 1880s), 'Soviet-American Relations, 1917-1920; Russia Leaves the War', pp. 28, 263.
46. Aug. 8, 1917, New York Times, 'Sees Russia Soon as Strong as Ever; Charles H. Boynton, Just Returned from There, Has Confidence in Government and Army'.
47. Sep. 8, 1917, The Economic World, vol. 14 (1918 archive), p. 334.
48. Nov. 1917, Judicious Advertizing, p. 34, 'Opportunities in Russia After the War'.
49. 1927, Alexander Kerensky, 'The Catastrophe', Chapter 16.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. 2017, Orlando Figes (professor of history at Birkbeck College, University of London), 'A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891-1924', p. 34: "Many of Kornilov's supporters were urging him to do away with the Provisional Government altogether. The Union of Officers, for example, laid plans for a military coup d'etat, while a 'conference of public men' in mid-August, made up mostly of Kadets and right-wing businessmen, clearly encouraged Kornilov in that direction. At the centre of these rightist circles was Vasilii Zavoiko, a rather shady figure — property speculator, industrial financier, journalist and political intriguer — who, according to General Martynov, acted as Kornilov's 'personal guide, one might even say his mentor, on all state matters'. Zavoiko's plans for a coup d'etat were so well known that even Whitehall had heard of them: as early as 8 August the Foreign Ministry in London told Buchanan, its Ambassador in Petrograd, that according to its military sources, Zavoiko was plotting the overthrow of the Provisional Government."
54. 1919, Alexander Kerensky, 'The Prelude To Bolshevism: The Kornilov Rising', Introduction.
55. Ibid.
56. 1935, 'The Testimony of Kolchak and Other Siberian Materials', pp. 96-97, 230: "I called upon Admiral Jellicoe, [99] who at that time was Minister of the Navy -- the First Lord of the Admirality. I called several times upon the Chief of the Naval general Staff, general [actually Rear-Admiral] Hall. [100] ... To be sure, the newspapers were [unreadable] conducting a campaign against Kerensky, saying that Kerensky was to blame for everything and characterizing him as [a] "babbler" - but on the whole the attitude in England toward Russia and Russians was a rather friendly one. In conversation with me [Admiral] Hall said: "... You can be saved only by a military dictatorship, because, if things go on as they are, you will be forced to make peace with the Germans and you will fall into their clutches." ... [100] General Hall [is] Sir William Reginald Hall (1870- ), Admiral, Director of Intelligence Division of Admiralty War Staff, 1914-1918; He was not Chief of the Naval Staff."
57. 1939, New York State Legislature, 'Report of the Joint Committee on Administration and Enforcement of the Law', p. 225.
58. 1971, Dr. Peter Kenez (UCSC; Ph.D. from Harvard under the mentorship of the neocon Richard Pipes), 'Civil War in South Russia, 1918', p. 78.
59. Ibid., p. 81.
60. Ibid., p. 82.
61. Ibid., p. 78.
62. Ibid., p. 79.
63. March 2017, Smithsonian Magazine, 'Vladimir Lenin's Return Journey to Russia Changed the World Forever'.
64. 2017, Tim Grady (Yale University Press), 'A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War': "Another major German-Jewish businessman involved in the three Belgian companies was Georg Solmssen. Born into the Salomonsohn banking dynasty, he had converted to Christianity in 1900 and shortened his name at the same time. ...
    The warm glow of German nationalist politics continued to seduce some German Jews even during the latter stages of the war. More remarkably perhaps, a small number of Jews actively sought a home in Tirpitz’s new German Fatherland Party. Arthur Salomonsohn and Georg Solmssen, both directors of the powerful Disconto-Gesellschaft, signed up as party members, as did Louis Hagen, the influential banker and investor in many Rhineland industrial concerns. Solmssen appeared to be so taken by the new party’s nationalist policies that he even gave the movement financial support.94 ...
    The DiscontoGesellschaft of Arthur Salomonsohn and Georg Solmssen seemed to be at the forefront of many of these lucrative deals. In Romania, the bank was part of a consortium that signed a thirty-year agreement to take sole control of the country’s oil reserves. Not content with exploiting Romania, the bank then joined forces with Max Warburg’s banking concern and representatives from heavy industry to secure control of the most productive elements of the Ukraine’s economy. Finally, the two banks collaborated on a project to carve up railway lines in the east that could be used to transport goods back to the Central Powers.25 As Germany’s economic elite quickly discovered, the Treaty of BrestLitovsk not only appeared to bring a German victory a step closer, it also opened up new business opportunities in the vast hinterlands of Eastern Europe.".
65. hunghist.org/index.php/84-abstract/510-2018-2-kover (accessed: Dec. 18, 2024): "Between 1873 and 1910, with some exceptions, it was the Rothschild–Creditanstalt–Disconto-Gesellschaft consortium that acted in the role of the state banker [in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy] in both halves of the dualistic state.".
66. family.rothschildarchive.org/estates/76-146-fahrgasse (accessed: Dec. 18, 2024): "With the death of Amschel [Rothschild] in 1855, the business passed to Carl von Rothschild (1820-1866) and Wilhelm Carl von Rothschild (1828-1901) as Joint Partners. By 1901, with the death of Wilhelm Carl, the Frankfurt bank’s last remaining partner, Frankfurt was no longer a significant financial centre. No family members in London, Paris or Vienna wished to move to the Prussian city, and the decision was taken to close the Frankfurt house. The remaining business was transferred to the Disconto Gesellschaft of Berlin, which established a Frankfurt office in order to handle its new business...".
67. history.state.gov/historicaldocuments /frus1918Russiav01/d371 (accessed: Dec. 18, 2024).
68. 1958, Zbynek A. B. Zeman, 'Germany and the Revolution in Russia, 1915-1918', p. 92.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. 1985 Google Books archive, Wall Street Journal, 'The Mantle of Warburg', pp. 60-61: "Eric's father, Max, was an advisor to Kaiser Wilhelm [before and during World War I] and a participant in the conference of Versailles. (He resigned to protest the treaty's terms.) Chaim Weizmann, one of the leaders of Zionism, was talking about Max Warburg when he excoriated German Jews who considered themselves "more German than German." Max Warburg died in the U.S."
72. December 18, 1912, UPI (founded in 1907 as United Press Associations), 'Investigation shows Morgan, 17 firms control $25.3 billion'. See the Pujo Report for details.
73. Jan. 15, 1917, New York Times, 'Expelled From Four Lands; Pacifist Editor Here from Russia, Germany, France and Spain.').
74. 1911, Monthly Bulletin of the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS), p. IV and others: "Advisory Board: ... Jacob H. Schiff. Isaac N. Seligman. [Etc.]..."
75. 1913, Monthly Bulletin of the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS), p. IV and others: "4 Life Members: ... Y. M. Blankfort. H. Rabinowitz. Felix M. Warburg. Paul M. Warburg. ... These figures may make it appear that your Society is HEBREW SHELTERING AND IMMIGRANT AID SOCIETY [p. 70:] financially well off . ... Respectfully submitted , PHILIP HERSH "
76. 2016, Kenneth D. Ackerman, 'Trotsky in New York, 1917'. (the source is a certain journalist M. Waldwan, who knew Trotsky in Vienna).
77. Ibid.
78. 1919, John Spargo (member Socialist Party of America), 'Bolshevism', p. 254.
79. 1919, Foreign Office of Great Britain, 'A Collection of Reports on Bolshevism in Russia', p. 99: "(Speech by Zinoviev: reported in the "Northern Commune.", September 19, [1918] No. 109."
80. 1920, John Spargo, The Greatest Failure In All History: A Critical Examination of The Actual Workings of Bolshevism In Russia, Chapter VII: The Red Terror.
81. 1981, George Leggett (from Poland; Cambridge and Oxford-educated; worked for the Ministry of Defence, also in Berlin post-WWII; this book was his unfinished Ph.D. dissertation), 'The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police', p. 53.
82. 1920, John Spargo (Socialist Party of America representative), The Greatest Failure In All History: A Critical Examination of The Actual Workings of Bolshevism In Russia, Chapter VII: The Red Terror.
83. Ibid
84. Ibid. Original source: 1920, A. Lockerman, 'Les Bolsheviks à l’oeuvre, preface par V. Zenzinov'.
85. 1981, George Leggett (from Poland; Cambridge and Oxford-educated; worked for the Ministry of Defence, also in Berlin post-WWII; this book was his unfinished Ph.D. dissertation), 'The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police', p. 198.
86. 1921, Great Britain. Committee to Collect Information on Russia, 'Information on Russia: Report (political and Economic) of', p. 64.
87. 2000, Arno J. Mayer (Princeton), 'The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions', Chapter 8, p. 254.
88. 2000, Arno J. Mayer (Princeton), 'The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions', Chapter 8, p. 254.
89. 1981, George Leggett, 'The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police', p. 176.
90. 1958, George F. Kennan (while at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton; cousin of George Kennan (1845-1924)), 'Soviet-American Relations, 1917-1920, Volume II: The Decision to Intervene', p. 113.
91. 1978, Professor Victor Fic (Ph.D. in International Law and Relations from Columbia University; president of the Canadian Society for Asian Studies 1974-1976), 'The Bolsheviks and the Czechoslovak Legion', p. 10.
92. 1920, Foreign Policy Association, 'Russian-American Relations, March, 1917 - March, 1920', pp. 82-84.
93. 1978, Professor Victor Fic, 'The Bolsheviks and the Czechoslovak Legion', pp. 12-16.
94. 1920, Foreign Policy Association, 'Russian-American Relations, March, 1917 - March, 1920', p. 104.
95. Ibid., p. 130.
96. Ibid., pp. 202-203.
97. Ibid., p. 229.
98. Ibid., p. 226-227.
99. Ibid., pp. 249-250.
100. Dec. 1948, Hans Heymann, Jr. for the The American Slavic and East European Review, 'Oil in Soviet-Western Relations in the Interwar Years', pp. 303-304.
101. Ibid., p. 304.
102. Ibid., pp. 312-313.
103. 1920, Foreign Policy Association, 'Russian-American Relations, March, 1917 - March, 1920', p. 252: "Official statement by the Soviet Government (Izvestia, September 3, 1918.) The conspiracy of Allied imperialists against Soviet Russia. [1]"
104. Ibid., pp. 314-315.
105. Nov. 5, 2020, no. 21, London Review of Books, 'They saw him coming; Neal Ascherson'.
106. 1994, Vol. 46, No. 4-8, Europe-Asia Studies, p. 1324 (Google Books compilation).
107. Ibid.
108. 1996, Clayton David Laurie (official U.S. Army and CIA historian), 'The Propaganda Warriors: America's Crusade Against Nazi Germany', p. 70.
109. 1996, Jonathan D. Smele (teaches Russian and European History at Queen Mary, University of London), 'Civil war in Siberia: the anti-Bolshevik government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918-1920', pp. 418-419.
110. 1919, U.S. State Department, 'Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: 1919: Russia', p. 389.
111. See ISGP's Pilgrims Society article for details and sources.
112. Dec. 30, 1929, Time, 'Business & Finance: Banks': "Fourth largest of New York banks is Equitable Trust Co. with resources of $953,000,000. Last fortnight its president. Chellis A. Austin died (TIME, Dec. 23). Last week Lawyer Winthrop Williams Aldrich was elected to succeed him. A yacht-goer, Lawyer Aldrich is 44, also a director of Bankers Trust Co. While he has been legal advisor ["senior legal executive"] to Equitable for ten years, most famed of his legal activities was to handle John Davison Rockefeller Jr.'s ousting of Oilman Robert Wright Stewart from Standard Oil of Indiana. After his election, Mr. Aldrich frankly conceded he came to Equitable representing Rockefeller interests, confirming the long-held assumption that Equitable is controlled by the Rockefellers."
113. Ibid.
114. 1919, U.S. State Department, 'Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: 1919: Russia', p. 419.
115. Ibid., p. 420.
116. July 4, 1920, New York Times, 'Russian Gold Fund's Adventures And Present Status; How Kolchak Lost His Life Clinging To A Trainload Of Precious Metal--various Shipments To England, Hongkong And Germany Detailed'.
117. May 28, 1920, New York Times, '$22,000,000 More Gold Sent Here by British; Part of Collateral Put Up by Kolchak Arrives at Pacific Ports to Meet Anglo-French Loan'.
118. June 1, 1921, U.S. Congress: House, Banking and Currency Committee, 'Amendment to Abolish Office of Controller of the Currency, Etc.', p. 12.
119. Ibid.
120. Ibid.
121. 1994, Vol. 46, No. 4-8, Europe-Asia Studies, p. 1324 (Google Books compilation): "There were a few minor qualms in western capitals as to whether a Russian admiral whom they did not recognize in his pretensions to governmental authority had the right to dispose of his nation’s assets, but these were soon set aside and American, British and French banks were informed that their governments found no technical or legal objections to business being done, on a private basis, with Kolchak."
122. 1975, Jules Archer, 'The Russians and the Americans', pp. 44, 57-58.
123. 2000, Arno J. Mayer (Princeton), 'The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions', Chapter 8, p. 254.
124. 2018, Dr. Irina Astashkevich (visiting research associate of the Tauber Institute), 'Gendered Violence: Jewish Women in the Pogroms of 1917 to 1921', Chapter 4, pp. 74-76.
125. 1935, Pavel Mikhaĭlovich Bykov, 'The Last Days of Tsar Nicholas', p. 89.
126. 1971, Gen. William S. Graves, 'America's Siberian Adventure, 1918–1920', Chapter 9: The Gaida Revolution.
127. March 31, 1919, history.state.gov, 'The Intelligence Officer with the American Expeditionary Forces in Siberia (Lieutenant Colonel Eichelberger) to the Director of the Military Intelligence Division in Washington'.
128. April 17, 1922, U.S. Congress: Senate, Committee on Education and Labor, 'The Deportation of Gregorii Semenov', p. 52. Words of W. W. Husband, commissioner general of immigration.
129. Ibid.
130. 1971, Gen. William S. Graves, 'America's Siberian Adventure, 1918–1920', Chapter 9: The Gaida Revolution.
131. March 31, 1919, history.state.gov, 'The Intelligence Officer with the American Expeditionary Forces in Siberia (Lieutenant Colonel Eichelberger) to the Director of the Military Intelligence Division in Washington'.
132. 1971, Gen. William S. Graves, 'America's Siberian Adventure, 1918–1920', p. 108.
133. March 31, 1919, history.state.gov, 'The Intelligence Officer with the American Expeditionary Forces in Siberia (Lieutenant Colonel Eichelberger) to the Director of the Military Intelligence Division in Washington'.
134. 1971, Gen. William S. Graves, 'America's Siberian Adventure, 1918–1920', Chapter 9: The Gaida Revolution.
135. 2018, Dr. Irina Astashkevich (visiting research associate of the Tauber Institute), 'Gendered Violence: Jewish Women in the Pogroms of 1917 to 1921', Chapter 4, p. 64.
136. Ibid.
137. Dec. 23, 1919, history.state.gov, 'The Secretary of State to President Wilson'.
138. Summer 1985, James K. Libby for Diplomatic History (Oxford University Press), 'The American-Russian Chamber of Commerce', p. 238.
139. Ibid., p. 241.
140. Ibid., pp. 242-243.
141. Ibid., pp. 241-242.
142. Dec. 1948, Hans Heymann, Jr. for the The American Slavic and East European Review, 'Oil in Soviet-Western Relations in the Interwar Years', pp. 312-313.
143. *) June 9, 13, 1930, U.S. Congress: House, 'Investigation of Communist Propaganda: Hearings', pp. 10, 32, etc.
     *) Nov. 30, 1931, Sydney Morning Herald, 'A World Menace: Russian Commercial Methods'.
144. February 1952, Henry L. Zelchenko for the 'The American Mercury, Stealing America's Know-How', pp. 75-84. (PDF).
145. Summer 1985, James K. Libby for Diplomatic History (Oxford University Press), 'The American-Russian Chamber of Commerce', p. 242.
146. Ibid., p. 243.
147. Nov. 24, 1933, American-Russian Chamber of Commerce conference at the New York City Waldorf Astoria document, 'Testimonial Dinner Tendered to the Honorable Maxim M. Litvinoff', remarks of Col. Hugh L. Cooper, p. 3. (PDF).
148. Ibid., pp. 5-6. (PDF).
149. Feb. 10, 2020 YouTube upload by 'Jean Pimenta', 'Antony Sutton - Wall Street and International Communism' (1980 interview by Stanley Monteith), 4:20.
     youtube.com/watch?v=m3O6OXOFXbg
150. 1973, Antony Sutton (Hoover Institution), 'Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development: 1945 to 1965; Third volume of a three-volume series', p. 77 (PDF).